CHAPTER IX

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MEANINGFUL WORLD IN I CHING: ON THE ORIGIN OF CHINESE PHILOSOPHIZING

VINCENT SHEN

DIVINATION, MANIFESTATION AND CONSTRUCTION

            In order to show how Chinese philosophy emerged from its cultural Life-world, I will try to explore the philosophical import of the Book of Changes, one of the oldest philosophical classics, and the foundation to Chinese philosophy. This can be done by considering the different levels of its project in constructing a meaningful world. As I see it, the search for the meaning of life fe in the Book of Changes moved from divination to manifestation and then from manifestation to philosophical construction.

            The Book of Changes. as the oldest classic of Chinese philosophy, was originally a book of divination for the Chou Dynasty. The act of divination concerns itself not yet with philosophical truth, but rather with consulting the oracles on good or bad omens in order to know the good or bad fortune in the destiny of the individual or the collective. In the evolution of the Book of Changes, even in this passive awaiting for the divine revelation, we can already discern the emergence of active participation by human subjectivity, leading eventually to the philosophical construction of a meaningful world. Briefly speaking, in the act of divination there was a search manifestations of the direction of change. From this concern with the manifestation of the vector of becoming, there emerged a philosophical construction of a meaningful world. This means that there was a movement in the Book of Changes from divination to manifestation, and then from manifestation to the philosophical construction of meaning.

            Historically speaking, we already can see the emergence of human subjectivity in the transformation of the modes of divination from the Yin or Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BC) to the Chou dynasty (1122-211 BC). In the Shang dynasty, people used tortoise shells for divination. It is a way of deciphering signs that emerge naturally from burning tortoise shells. These signs, once fixed, are the way they are and hence unchangeable. In the Chou dynasty, people used the plant, yarrow sticks, which depend upon the choice made, according to the rules of divination, by human beings, their reasoning and judgment. Whereas in divination by tortoise shells there was no place for the intervention of human subjectivity, in divination by yarrow sticks there was a possibility for such an intervention, thus leading to the construction of a humanly meaningful world.

            The Book of Changes is constituted of two parts, the older is called Chou Yi (Text), and the newer is called the Yi Chwan (Interpretations). Originally, Chou Yi was merely constituted of 64 hexagrams, with all the Kwa (hexagrams) explanations and Yao (strokes) explanations. Each hexagram is constituted of six strokes, for which the Kwa explanation explains the whole hexagram, whereas the Yao explanation explains stroke by stroke. For people of the Chou dynasty, each time they got a hexagram in divination, they consulted the Kwa explanation and Yao explanation of that hexagram in order to know the manifestation of the divine will, or the good or bad omens of the fortune of the man in question.

            On the other hand, the Yi Chwan, appearing in the period of Warring States, gave systematic interpretations to the Chou Yi. Among these interpretations, the Twan Interpretations, the 11 symbolism interpretations and the Great Appendix are the most philosophical. They establish a systematic interpretation to the Way of all things and the principles of human affairs implied in the text of the Chou Yi (text). In this way, we can say that the development from the Chou Yi (text) to the Yi Chwan (Interpretations) is a development from divination to manifestation, and then from manifestation to construction.

FROM DIVINATION TO MANIFESTATION

            In order to discern the manifestation of the good fortune or misfortune of a certain action, he who takes part in the divination should consult the Kwa explanations and Yao explanations of the Chou Yi, the explanations given by the Chou Yi itself consists in two ways of manifestation: the first is the revelation of the changes of human affairs through the changes of natural phenomena; the second is the reasoning of good fortune or misfortune of human affairs from the logical structure of the hexagram in question. The first is an analogical understanding of human affairs in contrast to natural phenomena. This constitutes a kind of dynamic contrast, whereas the second is a logical constitution of the 64 hexagrams through the combination of logical possibilities of Yin and Yang, constituting a kind of structural contrast. Let me explain.

            First, there is the manifestation of changes in human affairs through the process of natural phenomena: this is a self-understanding of human affairs through an analogical understanding obtained by contrast to processes of natural phenomena. For example, in the Yao explanation to the second stroke, undivided, of the Ta Kuo hexagram ( ), it says that "The second stroke shows a decayed willow producing shoots, that means an old husband gains the heart of his young wife. There will be no disadvantage in every way." And the Yao explanation to the fifth stroke, undivided, of the same hexagram says that, "The fifth stroke shows a decayed willow producing flowers, which means an old wife gains the heart of her young husband. There will be no occasion either for blame or for praise."² In the natural phenomena, the producing of shoots or flower of an old decayed willow means the regeneration of the life of an old tree. When this is shown in answer to the demand of an old bachelor or an old widow, it means that it is a favorable time for him or for her to marry again.

            Another example is the Yao explanations to the third stroke, undivided, of the Li hexagram ( ), it says,

            The third stroke shows its subject in a position similar to that of the declining sun. Instead of playing on his instrument of earthenware, and singing to it, he utters the groans of an old man of eighty. There will be evil."³ This is an answer to the demand of an old man searching for an occasion for pleasure that, as in the situation of the declining sun, for him to have fun willfully is not appropriate. And the Kwa explanation to the Hsiao Kwo hexagram says that, "Hsiao Kwo indicates that in the circumstances which it implies there will be progress and attainment, But it will be advantageous to be firm and righteous. (What the name denotes may be done in small affairs, but not in great affairs. It is like the notes that come down from a bird on the wings -- to descend is better than to ascend. In this way, there will be great good fortune,"⁴ because of the fact that the sound of a flying bird descends rather than ascends. It is better in this case for human affairs to obey humbly than to boast proudly.

            The kind of explanations exemplified in the above-mentioned cases show a reasoning by analogy based upon, on the one hand, the continuity and discontinuity between natural phenomena and human affairs. On the other hand, although there is belongingness between nature and human beings, it is also necessary for human beings to keep their distance and to pay respect to natural phenomena in order to achieve self-understanding for conducting human affairs, The existential decision leading to human destiny should not be limited to the observation of natural phenomenon. This is a first emergence of a dynamic contrast leading to the self-awareness of human historical consciousness.

            Second, the constitution of hexagrams, which serves as the logical foundation of manifestation, itself results from a logic of two values, exemplified by an unbroken stroke (   ) and a broken stroke (--). As explained by Thomé Fang in his Logical Problems of the Book of Changes, there is a logical derivation of the 64 hexagrams.⁵ The two constituent strokes, — and --, take alternatively, will generate the two cardinal trigrams, Ch'ien ( ) and K'un ( ), through trivergence. And then, these two congruent cardinal trigrams will give rise to their six descendants through selective cross-linkage. On the one hand, the two cardinal trigrams, Ch'ien and K'un, will continue to generate hexagrams by alternative superposition. On the other hand, the other six rudimentary trigrams, by way of super-adding, will generate another group of hexagrams. In this way, after 18 steps of logical derivation, we have a system of 64 hexagrams. As is explained in the Remarks on the Trigrams of the Book of Changes, "Each trigram embraced those three categories, and, being repeated, its full form consists of six lines. A distinction was made of the positions assigned to the Yin and Yang lines, which were variously occupied, now by the strong, now by the soft forms, and thus the figure of each hexagram was completed."⁶ This logical derivation produces an open system of 64 hexagrams, in which any two co-ordinate hexagrams are put into a state of perfect congruence explicable in terms of logical correspondence. Logically speaking, we have 32 pairs of opposite hexagrams.

            From the above, we can say that, in interpreting the results of divination, the supposed divine will or the way of becoming is manifested through, first, the observation of natural phenomena and the analogical reasoning upon these phenomena, and second, systematic structuring by a quasi-logico-mathematical construction. Therefore, the manifestation is constituted of both cosmological and formal meaning. But, either in the structural contrast of its formal constitution, or in the self-awareness of human affairs in contrast to natural phenomena, the principal aim of divination is to attain the manifestation of the Way of becoming in order to conduct a meaningful life by following a certain norms of action. For example, in the Yao explanation to the fifth stroke of Heng hexagram ( ), it says that, "the fifth stroke shows its subject continuously maintaining the virtue indicated by it (constancy). In the case of a wife, this will be good fortune, in the case of a husband, misfortune."⁷ This means that a wife, in following the virtue of constancy, will be in good fortune in what happens, whereas a husband, who should decide what is right in the circumstances, will have misfortune if he keeps to a pattern of behavior stubbornly, so as not to arrive at a right decision.

            Another example is the Yao explanation to the third stroke of the Chia Ren hexagram ( ), it says that, "The third nine (or unbroken stroke) shows that its subject treats the members of the household with stern severity. But since there gives occasion for repentance and rigor, there will be good fortune. But if the wife and children were given to smirking and chattering, in the end there will be occasion for regret."⁸ This means that when the husband tends to be serious, even to the point of severity, towards his family, this means good fortune if there were occasion for repentance and encouragement. But if members of the family are frivolous rather than serious, there will be occasion for regret. It is clear then that the words of divination describe only the action demanded in divination and its good fortune or bad fortune, but the Kwa explanation and the Yao explanation add some lessons to human action concerning the cultivation of virtue and the conducting of a meaningful life. By doing this, they concentrate upon the life and destiny of the person.

FROM MANIFESTATION TO CONSTRUCTION

            If the Chou Yi achieved and represented the process from divination to manifestation, then the Yi Chwan represents the process from manifestation to philosophical construction. It is here that the Book of Changes became a book of philosophy, because here it is enlarged universally to the whole realm of existence, not limiting itself to the function of divination and of telling of good or bad fortune in human affairs. As to its comprehensive functions, the Great Appendix, one of the most philosophical texts of the Yi Chuan, says:

            In the Yi there are four things characteristic of the way of the sages. We should set the highest value on its explanation to guide us in discourse, on its becoming for our actions, on its emblematic figures for the construction of implements, and on its prognostications for our practice of divination.⁹

            It is evident, then, that divination is only one of the four functions of the Book of Changes. Apart from divination, it serves also the functions of guiding discourse, action, and technological invention, touching upon all aspects of human life. This means the principles elaborated by the Book of Changes apply to all domains of human existence.

            According to the Book of Changes, Yi touched not only upon the principle of human existence, but also upon the principle of all things. In this way, it is deep and exhaustive enough to penetrate into all views and all actions. The Great Appendix says again:

            The operations constituting the Yi are the method by which the sages searched out exhaustively what was deep, and investigated the minutest springs of things. Those operations searched out what was deep, therefore they could penetrate to the views of all under the sky. They made manifest the minutest springs of things, therefore they could bring to completion all undertakings under the sky.¹⁰

            But by what steps were the operations constituting the Yi constructed? According to the Great Appendix, we could analyze them into the following.

            The Construction of Elementary Representations. According to the Great Appendix, "The sage was able to survey all the complex phenomena under the sky. He then considered in his mind how they could be figured, and, by a series of diagrams, represented their material forms and their characters. Hence, these diagrams are denominated semblances (for emblematic figures, the Symbolism or the Hsiang)."¹¹ What were to be represented were the greatest natural phenomena of our environmental world: heaven and earth, mountains and accumulations of water, thunder and wind, water and fire. Besides, they could represent also different things in the environment, different plants and animals. For example, Ch'ien represents heaven, jade, metal, ice, horse., etc., Li represents fire, sun, lightning, turtle, crab, tortoise, etc. These astronomical, physical and biological entities are Reality in itself, whereas our images of them and our knowledge of their nature are Constructed Reality. Starting from the construction of representations, we begin to elaborate a meaningful world.

            The Construction of Directions of Action. Actions are taken in the nexus of space and time. First, all actions are undertaken in time; therefore temporal direction is most important. In the Book of Changes, the direction of time is conceived in two ways: Toward the past, it is a natural process; toward the future, it is an anticipatory process. The Remarks on Trigrams says that. "The numbering of the past is a natural process; the knowledge of the coming is anticipation. Therefore, in the Yi we have both anticipation and the natural process."¹² But in space, the directions of action, even as taken in the temporal process, becomes more complicated. Eight principal spatial directions are thus possible for any action. As the Remark on Trigrams says:

            All things are made to issue forth in Dzeng ( ), which is placed at the east. The process of production is brought into full and equal action in Sun ( ), which is placed at the southeast. The "being brought into full and equal action" refers to the purity and equal arrangement of all things. The Li ( ) gives the idea of brightness. All things are now made manifest to one another. It is the trigram of the south. The sages turn their faces to the south when they give audience to all under the sky, administering government towards the region of brightness. . . . Kuen ( ) denotes the earth, and is placed at the southwest. All things receive from it their fullest nourishment, and hence it is said, "The greatest service is done for him in Kuen. Tui ( ) corresponds to the west and to the autumn -- the season in which all things rejoice. He struggles in Ch'ien, which is the trigram of the northwest. There the Yin and Yang beat against each other. Kan denotes water, it is the trigram of the exact north -- the trigram of comfort and rest, the goal to which all tend. Ghen is the trigram of the northeast. In it, all things bring to a completion of the issues of the past year, and prepare to begin the next.¹³

            In this text, eight spatial directions of action are well represented. More complicated and more minute spatial directions are elaborated with the complexification of hexagrams. The directions of action are important for the good or bad fortune of an action, and often is well indicated in the Kwa explanations. For example, in the Kwa explanation of the Kuen hexagram, it is said that "There is advantage in getting friends in the southwest, whereas he loses his friend in the northeast. If he sticks with righteousness and firmness, there will be good fortune."¹⁴

            The Representation of Our Body. In the texture of space and time, it is our body which takes action and moves in different directions. Therefore our body must be represented and situated in the reality. It is said in the Remarks on Trigrams that, Ch'ien suggests the idea of a head; Kuen, that of the belly; Kan, that of the feet; Sun, that of the thighs; Kan, that of the ears; Li, that of the eyes; Ghen, that of the hands; and Tui, that of the mouth."¹⁵ But we should add here that body is part of reality in itself, part of constructed reality. It is a mediation between the reality in itself and the constructed reality. Because, on the one hand, our body, with all its organs and members, belongs to the order of reality, and, on the other hand, our body moves in space and time according to the representations it conceived of the reality and the decision it takes by judging these representations.

            The Construction of Human Relationships, Especially Ethical Relationship. The Remarks on Trigrams says that

            Ch'ien is the symbol of heaven, and hence has the appellation of father, Kuen is the symbol of earth, and hence has the appellation of mother. Dzeng shows the first application of Ch'ien to Kuen, resulting in the first male, and hence is called its eldest son. Sun shows a first application of Ch'ien to Kun, resulting in the first female, and hence is called its eldest daughter. Kan shows a second application of Kuen to Ch'ien resulting in the second male, and hence called its second son. Li shows a second application of Ch'ien to Kuen, resulting in the second female, and thus called its second daughter. Ghen shows a third application of Kuen to Ch'ien, resulting in the third male, and hence is called the youngest son. Tui shows a third application of Ch'ien to Kuen, resulting in the third female, and hence is called its youngest daughter.¹⁶

            This ethical context means that human beings always act and live in an ethical relationship. Human beings never act and live as isolated individuals. Thus ethical relations could be combined with other dimensions of construction as, for example, the spatial factor, so as to construct a world of meaningful life. Therefore, in the traditional Chinese house, the father lives in the northwest room, the mother that of the southeast, the eldest son that of the east, the eldest daughter that of the southeast, the second son that of the north, etc.

            The Construction of the System of Hexagrams. In order that the emblematic representations cover all situations of human existence there should be a logical derivation of all the hexagrams representing all typical situations: According to the Great Appendix, "Therefore in the Yi there is the Great Ultimate which produces the elementary forms. These two elementary forms produce the four emblematic symbols, which again produce the eight trigrams."¹⁷ The eight trigrams having being completed in their proper order, there are, in each, the three emblematic lines. They were then multiplied by a process of addition till the six Yao appeared."¹⁸ The Yi is a book in which the form of each diagram is determined by the strokes from the first to the last, which must be carefully observed, The six Yao are mixed together according to the time and their substances.¹⁹ The Yi is a book of wide comprehension and great scope, embracing everything. There are in it the way of Heaven, the way of man and the way of earth. It then takes three categories, and doubles them till they amount to six."²⁰ As we have explained above, the system of hexagrams, with six strokes, was elaborated until the number of 64, although it could continue without limit. That is why I call it an "Open System".

            The Constitution of a Universal Norm of Action. After the construction of representations, a universal standard of action must be established in order to guide the praxis. The way of Yi is universal in the sense made precise by the Great Appendix, in which we find a text saying that "The Way by which these things come about is very comprehensive, and must be acknowledged in every sphere of things. If at the beginning there be a cautious apprehension as to the end, there probably will be no error or cause for blame. This is the Way of Yi."²¹ Here the term "comprehensive" and the phrase "in every sphere of things" mean the universality of praxis. It is an universal norm of action which is the concern here in the Book of Changes. That is why the Great Appendix says that "A later sage was able to survey all actions under the sky. He contemplated them in their common action, in order to bring the universal standard and proper tendency of each. He then appended his explanation to each line, to determine the good or evil indicated by it."²² The wisdom contained in the Book of Changes, therefore, resulted from contemplation of the universal standard of human common action, and what it prescribes is, therefore, universal norms of action for human beings.

AGENT AND ACTION: HUMAN INTERVENTION INTO STRUCTURE

            Although the structural aspect of the Book of Changes is constituted of the logico-mathematical system of hexagrams, the subjectivity and dimension of meaning could intervene also in the structure, even to the point of reorganizing it. This would means that the human subject and its search for meaning could not only render specific interpretations to structures, but could also become a power of structuring. This can be shown by different ways of deciding what is good fortune and what is misfortune in the Book of Changes.

            The first theory for such decisions is that of proper position, as is proposed in the Twan Explanation and the Small Symbolic Explanation. In appearance, this consists in a kind of structural operation, but later on it introduces Confucian ethical theory and Taoist Yin Yang theory. The main proposition of the theory of proper position says that the Yang stroke, that is the unbroken line, should be in the Yang position, that is, the odd lines; and the Yin stroke (broken line) should be in the Yin position, that is, the even line. In other words, a hexagram is constituted of six strokes (lines), in which the first, the third and the fifth lines, counting from the bottom of each hexagram, are the Yang position, whereas the second, the fourth and the sixth lines, counting from the bottom of each hexagram, are the Yin positions. The unbroken lines, which are called Yang Yao, should take the Yang position as its proper position, otherwise it will be in an improper position. The broken lines, which are called Yin Yao, should take the Yin as their proper position, otherwise it will be in improper position, To be in proper position is to have good fortune, whereas to be in improper position is to have misfortune. For example, in the 63rd hexagram, the Ji Chi ( ), every Yang and Yin stroke is in its proper position. That is why the Twan explanation says that, "There will be advantage in being firm and correct. The strong and soft lines are correctly arranged, each in its appropriate position."²³ On the contrary, in the 54th hexagram, that is the Kweimei hexagram ( ), the Kwa explanation says that, "Kweimei indicates that, under the condition it denotes, every action will be misfortunate and in no wise advantageous."²⁴ And the Twan explanation says that, "Every action will be misfortunate, because the positions of the lines are not those appropriate to them."²⁵

            When the theory of proper position does not suffice for explaining all the fortunate and unfortunate cases, the Twan explanation introduces the theory of respondent position. This theory says that, when in the groups of the first and the fourth lines, the second and the fifth lines, and the third and the sixth lines, there is a Yin line responding to a Yang line or a Yang line responding to a Yin line, then it will be a case of good fortune. When, being without proper position, there is no such a respondent, it will be a case of misfortune. For example, in the 14th hexagram, the Thah Yuo hexagram ( ), the fifth line is not in its proper position according to the theory of proper position; nevertheless its Yao explanation says that, "the fifth stroke shows the sincerity of its subject reciprocated by that of all the others represented in the hexagram. Let him display a proper majesty and there will be good fortune."²⁶ The judgment of a good fortune in this case falsifies the theory of proper position. The justification offered by the theory of respondent position in the Twan explanation says that, "In Tah You the soft line has the position of honor and is grandly central, because the strong lines above and below respond to it."²⁷ The fifth line becomes the sign of good fortune because of the respondent position occupied by the Yang stroke in the second line.

            In the case that there is neither proper position nor respondent position, it will not necessarily go to the misfortune side, because it can still be remedied by a stroke occupying the central place in the upper or lower trigram. Thus we have a subsidiary theory of central position. This theory says that the stroke which appears in the divination in the second line, which is central to the lower trigram, or in the fifth line, which is central to the upper trigram, will be a subsidiary sign of good fortune. For example, in the 64th hexagram, the Weitsi hexagram ( ), the fifth stroke, which belongs to Yin, is not in its proper position, but the Yao explanations of it tells good fortune. To explain this, the Twan explanation says that, "Weitsi intimates progress and success because the soft line is in central position."²⁸ The theory of central position is merely a subsidiary theory, but it can offer remedy to the case of improper position, whereas in the case of proper position, it can offer positive reinforcement.

            Finally, there is the theory of proper time. It says that the good fortune or misfortune of a hexagram depends upon the proper or improper character of the time in which it appears. If it appears in proper time, it is good fortune; otherwise, when the time is not appropriate, it is misfortunate. The fact that a line is in the central position does not necessarily make it good fortune. It is good fortune when it is in proper time, and misfortune when in improper time. This follows what the Great Appendix says, "The strong and soft lines have their fixed and proper position; their changes, however varied, are according to the requirement of time."²⁹ For example, when in the 60th hexagram, the Tsié hexagram ( ), both the second and the fifth lines are in central position, That is why its Twan explanation says that, "Tsié intimates that there will be progress and attainment. The strong and the soft are well divided and the strong line occupies the central position."³⁰ But, unfortunately, the Yao explanation of the second line says that, "The second stroke shows its subject not quitting the courtyard inside his gate. There will he misfortune."³¹ To this misfortune, the Hsiang explanation says that, "He does not quit the courtyard inside his gate. There will be misfortune. Because he loses the proper time to an extreme degree."³²

            From the above, it becomes clear that the Book of Changes, even if it contains the structural aspect, will never neglect the factor of human subjectivity and historicity. If human beings want to know the good fortune or misfortune of their actions, they must, on the one hand, refer to the logical mathematical structure, to the point of even supposing something like the Mathesis Universalis, or, on the other hand, these structures must submit themselves to the subjective interpretation of human beings in order to render themselves meaningful. The Great Appendix says,

            The sticks are manipulated by three and five to determine the process of becoming; they are laid on opposite sides, and are placed one up, one down, to make sure their numbers. And the three necessary changes are achieved in this way, till they form the figure pertaining to heaven or to earth. Their numbers are exactly determined, and the emblems of all things under the sky are fixed. If the Yi were not most capable of changes of all things under heaven, how could it effect such an achievement as this?³³

This important text shows the marvelous effect of the combination of structural factors. But, on the other hand, the Remarks on the Trigrams says that,

            In ancient time, when the sages composed the Yi, in order to give assistance to the spiritual Intelligence, they created the rule for the use of the divining plant. The number three was assigned to heaven, number two to earth, and from these came the other numbers, They contemplated the changes through the broken and unbroken lines and formed the trigrams. From the movements taking place in the strong and soft lines, they created the separate lines or Yao. There ensued a harmonious conformity to the Way of Tao and virtue to the discernment of what is just and right. They made an exhaustive investigation into the principle of all things to understand the mandate of Heaven.³⁴

This important text shows the interconnection between structural operation and human self-realization

DYNAMIC CONTRAST AND HISTORICITY

            The Book of Changes, in its philosophical project of constructing a meaningful world, not only introduces the dimension of meaningfulness into the structural contrasts by way of subjective interpretation, but it proposes a vision of dynamic contrast directed towards the development of human historicity. By "dynamic contrast," I mean the interplay between the continuity and discontinuity in the process of time which lead to the evolution of history. The Book of Changes not only contains structural contrasts constituted of difference and complementarity, but is full of dynamic contrast and takes the historic movement through dynamic contrast as the essence of Change. Thus, the Great Appendix says, "The rhythmic interchange of the Yin and the Yang constitutes what is called the Way of things. That towards which all things aim in their successive progress toward goodness. That which could be realized in its completeness is the nature of all things."³⁵ This dialectical interplay between the Yin and the Yang constitutes the first dynamic contrast in the concept of historical development in the Book of Changes. This constitutes the law of nature in the philosophy of Yi and has a metaphysical import. But its successive development can lead to the realization of values, that is, goodness and the realization of the nature of human beings and of all things.

            The second dynamic contrast. according to the Book of Changes is the dialectical interaction between the strong and the soft. "The sages set forth the diagrams, inspected the emblems contained in them, and appended their explanations -- in this way good fortune and bad fortune were made clear. The strong and the soft interact one with another, and produce the changes."³⁶ Moreover, another text in the Great Appendix says, "The eight trigrams having been completed in their proper order, there were in each the three emblematic lines. They were then multiplied by a process of addition till the six Yao (or component lines) appeared. The strong lines and the soft lines push themselves each into the place of the other, and hence the changes of the diagram take place."³⁷ We can see that, in the Book of Changes, the rhythmic interaction between the Yin and the Yang, the strong and the soft, all belonging to the category of dynamic contrast, constitutes universal principles of the cosmos, but their final objective is to determine the good or bad fortune of human action.

            Yin and Yang, strong and soft, etc., each pair represents the dynamic contrasts which interchange between themselves. When the becoming of one state of affairs comes to the extreme of its development, it goes naturally to its opposite state of affairs. The fulfillment of Yang goes to the emergence of Yin. The culmination of the strong goes to the generation of the soft. The maximization of suffering goes to the beginning of happiness. All these represent the process by which the ultra maturation of one state of affairs goes to the commencement of its opposite. Something very much like the dialectical process.

            For example, the Hsiang explanation of the first hexagram, the Ch'ien hexagram uses the images of the becoming of a dragon to illustrate the becoming of human destiny. Such as "The dragon lies hid in the deep." "The dragon appears in the field." "Active and vigilant all the day." "Leaping up as from the deep." "The dragon is one wing in the sky." "The dragon exceeding its proper limits, there will be occasions of repentance." The Wen Yen explains this, saying "Only he who is the sage knows when to advance and when to retire, when to maintain and when to let perish, and that without losing the righteousness of his nature."

            The text shows the sage's deep concern with human historicity and the destiny of humankind. The Great Appendix explains in the same way, "He who keeps danger in mind will rest safe in his seat; he who keeps ruin in mind will preserve his interests secure; he who sets the danger of disorder before his own eyes will maintain the state of order. Therefore the superior man, when resting in safety, does not forget that danger might come; when in a state of security, he does not forget the possibility of ruin. And when all is in the state of order, he does not forget that disorder might come. Therefore his person is kept safe, and his country with all its clans can be preserved."⁴⁰ This text shows a deep concern for the destiny both of the individual and the collectivity. The positive direction of human destiny for the Book of Changes is the wholesome unfolding of human potentiality and the completion of human historicity.

            Let me conclude. In the Book of Changes the construction of meaning has the following characteristics: First, it refers always to reality in itself, to nature and its regulations, to the natural phenomena appearing in our environment. Not only the existence of reality in itself is never denied, we can even always draw from nature resources for our knowledge and action. Second, what we can refer to for the decision of what we should do is not reality itself, but the representations and their structures that we construct out of our interaction with the environment. Centering around our body, representations of both the natural and social environments are constructed and organized in a rigorous way in order to set up a system of possibilities which human beings could endow with their own interpretations. Finally, there is an evident pragmatism in the Book of Changes which concerns itself with human action and its good or bad fortune. Since going toward the better or toward the worse is the matter of the most concern in human affairs, here the Book of Changes touches upon the human soul. It is a philosophy of action and of bringing action to the betterment of the human being in the process of history.

            In the Book of Changes, we find not only cosmic regularity and comminatory logical structure, but also human subjectivity and historicity, both leading to the betterment of human beings. It is in this context of the betterment of human beings, not only in referring to the cosmological structure, but also in the formation and unfolding of human historicity, that we should reconsider the structure and meaning of science, culture and other constituents of human culture.