THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE FORMATION AND TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE

LEON DYCZEWSKI

The culture of every society, of any social group whatsoever, is made up of three basic elements: 1) values and ideas; 2) modes of behavior which are not casual or sporadic, but the realization of a distinctive behavioral pattern created by definite norms that induce an individual to behave in one way rather than another (for example, the pattern of behavior in a place of worship causes the Moslem to take off his shoes before entering it, the Jew to cover his head, the Catholic to take off his hat and genuflect before the Blessed Sacrament); 3) objects which are the effects of the values, ideas and modes of behavior which are the essential or core elements of every culture. Being immaterial, they are hidden in signs which can be either modes of behavior or objects. Concrete values join with a specific mode of behavior within a group, so that the same behavior or object may have different meanings for persons belonging to various social groups. Thus, for some the cross means punishment and disgrace, for others it is the redemption of mankind, for others it has an artistic value because made by a good artist, while for yet others it affirms the culture of which it is typical, for example, the cross with three diagonal beams in the Ukraine.

The meaning of modes of behavior and of objects is passed on from person to person and from generation to generation, thereby making interpersonal communication possible. In this communication everything has its own meaning: bowing the head as well as raising the brows, shaking hands, a smile or giving a present. Interpersonal communication, then, has a symbolic character. Symbolic communication may be carried out directly ("face to face") or indirectly. In the former, persons can interchange roles so that the same person is at one time the giver and at another time the receiver of the message. The communication is carried out by speech, mimicry, bodily gestures, the voice, sound, smell or objects. Indirect symbolic communication takes place when the persons who exchange the meaning do not see each other or live in the same place, do not know each other personally or live at the same time. In this case, the transmission of meaning is done through such lasting means as writing, a picture, a sculpture or a building. Here there is no interchange of rules between the giver to the receiver as in the case of direct communication.

Direct communication is superior to indirect symbolic communication, for by appropriate modes of behavior values, ideas or norms can be expressed more fully, and its meaning and mode of realization can be shown. This can evoke a strong emotional experience as well, thereby strengthening its acceptance or rejection. This type of symbolic communication takes place within small groups, among which the family belongs in the first place. It is precisely the family with its many features that brings about the creation and transmission of meaning and hence the formation of culture. The family is the bridge to general culture, as well as its shelter when necessary. This role of the family in the formation and the transmission of culture is conditioned by some typical features, among which three must be mentioned.

First the family is a clearly separate or individualized group. Marriage, as well as natural consanguinity or legal relationship by virtue of adoption, set the limits of who belongs to this group and who does not. Those who constitute the family generally have the same surname in order to emphasize their distinctness from those who do not belong to it. Thus five, ten or more people bear the name S mith, Kow alski or Ri zzi; they occupy a definite place and possess definite objects. They identify their house by means of a doorplate which declares to all that is their home and no stranger has the right to enter it without their invitation or at least consent.

The second feature of the family is the great differentiation regarding positions and roles assumed by the small number of its members. There are the positions and roles of husband-father, wife-mother, both parents together, daughter-sister, son-brother, children, father-in-law, mother-in-law, grandfather, grandmother, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, grandson, granddaughter, and more especially even greatgrandparents and greatgrandchildren. This system of position and roles in the immediate family becomes even more rich when expanded to included uncles and aunts, as well as their children. Thus, the number and variety of contacts is great, even within such a small social group as the family, and form in turn a distinct social system.

The third feature of the family group, especially important because of its role in the formation and the transmission of culture, is its types of interior contacts. These usually are direct, but can be also indirect, and either informal or formal. Their content includes matters both serious and trivial; they involve each one individually and all simultaneously; as a rule, they have emotional overtones and embrace the whole person; and they range from birth to death. Therefore, even when one deserts it, one cannot escape the family.

Due to these features, the family possesses its own life: it is capable to creative activity, it can isolate itself from its environment and live as it sees fit; it can have its own system of values, its own norms and patterns of behavior; it can spend its leisure time and keep family feasts in its own way. Thus, it is the most formative group with regard to culture. This characteristic of the family manifests itself in various fields. In this present article, only the following formative tasks of the family will be discussed: 1) its molding of the creative person; 2) its formation of its own culture, as well as the system of values and the fundamental attitudes of its members; and 3) its linkage with a national and cultural identity. The conditions which lay the basis for the fulfillment of the role of the family in the formation of culture will be presented in the conclusion.

Thinkers from various times emphasize the features which distinguish the human person from the other living creatures, as well as those which differentiate people among themselves. Aristotle, St. Thomas Aqu inas and Des cartes have underscored, above all, the human capacity to think and to control biological impulses. They see these qualities as distinguishing human beings from the animal world. More modern thinkers, chiefly those of the XVIII century, have underscored the sphere of cravings, desires and emotions. Man, they argued, is distinguished by his constant pursuit of happiness and by the fact that he reaches such a state intelligently by choosing the most appropriate means.

Presently, without negating the human qualities mentioned above, it is stressed that man is a creative agent. His most essential need is to create and in this creative process are developed. His spiritual and physical attributes, his intelligence and ability to make choices, and his emotional life achieves maturity. In creating he consolidates and enriches himself and the world.¹

To see the person as a creator emphasizes one's developmental attributes. As one affirms and improves these, one becomes a more complete and more perfect person. Initiating and directing the creative attributes of one's development depends on many factors, but the decisive role is played by the family as the most important "school" for greater human development. Each family fulfills this task in its own way, and some are more formative of the person as creator than are others. Nevertheless, every family is called by its very nature to this as its fundamental task. It fulfills this task of developing the person first and foremost by forming the very important dispositions indispensable for being a creator.

The process of human development comes to pass through innumerable impulses which stimulate development and strengthen independence of the individual. Their influence is neither permanent nor homogenous: the same impulse which today is the basis for development and brings reward, tomorrow may bring punishment and become a setback. Furthermore, as many impulses are disorganized, they may cause fear, fatigue and apathy. The first task of the person is to put the impulses in order so as to bring about their harmony, simplicity and understanding and enable the outside world to become intelligible. Oftentimes the individual is unable to do this alone and his closest friends, and in the first place his own family, come to his help.

The family as a clearly separate group which embraces man in all his aspects and simplifies the complex environment of life.² It performs the task of a peculiar filter, as it were, which allows only certain elements of the environment to reach the family members; and, while some elements pass without any change, others are simplified or modified. The family also plays the role of a regenerator should one of its members be "wounded" in the environment of education, work or play. Regeneration consists in restoring one's sense of worth, dignity and security.

This way the fam ily enables the outside world to become comprehensible to its members so that they can enter it full of optimism. It provides the indispensable conditions enabling its members to know this world, to deal with it as their own and transform it, to enrich it with different goods and make it more beautiful. The family fulfills its role of forming social optimism for all its members, but this is most evident in the case of its youngest generation. Selecting the influences which affect the child, organizing and interpreting them are the main tasks of the family. Whether the child grows without unnecessary fears and stresses and comes to trust people and the world, depends upon how the family fulfills this role. This task of the family is especially important today: first, because the world has become more differentiated, intricate, incomprehensible and aggressive; second, because modern man encounters this world from his earliest years through the process of education, and as an adult remains in it for a significant part of his life performing his professional duties.

The reality surrounding a person is recognized and named; everything has its own name. Behind every object and mode of behavior, behind the links between objects and behavioral patterns, there lies some meaning. Hence, the person lives in a twofold world: the one which he perceives and feels with his senses as existing independently or apart from him; the other which he himself creates and exists in the form of names, ideas, definitions, divisions and connections-this is the world of symbols. The knowledge of this world of symbols is the basis or key for knowledge of the world and of oneself. Through it one can describe and analyze the outside world as well as one's own most intimate thoughts and experiences; one comes to an understanding with one's fellow man, creates social bonds and fashions the world.

By one's nature a person aspires to know the world and to establish ties with other people; one desires to know the world of symbols. This can be seen perfectly in the case of a child asking adults incessantly: "What is this?", "What is the name of this?", "What does this mean?". The family is the first to give answers to these questions. It introduces the person to the world of meanings. It teaches that a smile and an outstretched hand mean openness and good will but that brows tightened in a frown mean tension or a bad interior condition, an obstacle to interpersonal communication; that in its culture black may mean sadness and sorrow whereas white indicates joy and happiness; that the three letters "yes" mean approval or consent, while three other letters, "nay", mean prohibition and denial.

The world of meanings into which the family introduces the child, can be more or less rich, more or less consciously perceived, as is evident in language. Children from lower social groups use more meager vocabulary, lack abstract concepts and have difficulty in joining different kinds of meanings into a complex whole. In turn, this makes it more difficult for them to acquire knowledge, to learn about the world and to communicate with children from higher social classes whose world of symbols is more rich. A reverse example of the family's importance in forming the world of symbols among its members is found in children from orphanages who manifest farreaching retardation in the acquisition of many words and in understanding many signs.

The introduction of the child, as well as of adults, into the world of symbols occurs spontaneously within the family, on the basis of deep biological and spiritual bonds. Family members learn from each other the meaning of words, modes of behavior, sounds, colors, smells and objects in their wholeness, as it were, without requiring reasons but acting "on faith" and in total mutual confidence. During the early years of the child's life the mother plays a much greater role in this than the father.

When the family introduces a child and adults to the world of symbols, it fulfills the peculiar role of a doorman, as it were, letting them into the world of culture. The number of symbols acquired within the family, enables them to understand and experience their culture, and then to enrich it. It would be difficult for an adult Pole, for example, to understand and experience the whole symbolism behind the objects and modes of behavior at Christmas which represent the essential element of Polish culture, if he did not participate from early childhood in preparing the Christmas tree, sharing the wafer, setting up the manger, singing Christmas carols, extending good wishes or feeling some emotions during the Christmas Vigil supper.

The family fashions the image of the world in its members, first of all by passing on the image of man and woman and of social life. However, this creative role of the family in culture does not consist in providing its members with an adequate number of facts, for with the modern progress of knowledge this would be simply impossible. The role of the family in the formation of culture should not be reduced to increasing our mass of intellectual data; acquired knowledge and accumulated experience are merely the means to know the world and self, to learn about social processes and to understand social life comprehensively.

The role of the family in this domain of cultural creativity lies, above all, in forming its members' way of perceiving reality, posing questions, seeing problems and finding solutions. The family forms the style of acquiring knowledge as well as of formulating its content. It molds the person's attitude toward truth, goodness and beauty--the three fundamental values of every culture. By presenting these values to the individual, the family oftentimes becomes a decisive factor as to whether one will realize them in one's individual and social life, and how this will be done.

Neither the closest social environment nor the state have any control over the family in forming such intellectual qualities in its members. In this regard parents and the other family members are not subject to any institution, nor by the same token to any social control. Being free, they bear great responsibility as to what image of the world, of man and of woman, and of social life, what attitudes toward truth, goodness and beauty they form in their family.

B.S. Bloom put forward the hypothesis that the greatest development of the child's cognitive capacity takes place between the third and eighth year of life. This is the preschool period and the first years of schooling.³ Kindergarten, when properly directed, and good educators in the early school years can introduce the child to a richer world of symbols and develop his or her cognitive abilities above the level determined by the conditions in the family. This is the task of kindergarten and school which should be oriented more to the formation of a child's cognitive qualities and of proper attitudes toward truth, goodness and beauty, then to the accumulation of a mass of intellectual data or information. They should be oriented more to the formation of a creative posture with regard to the world and themselves, rather than toward filling children's heads with information of various kinds which is often inconsistent or quickly outdated. Today computers are storehouses of information; children should not be educated to replace them, but to be able to use them creatively and to perfect them.

In realizing its basic goals of creating a community of persons and forming fully human beings, the family undertakes many long-range activities as well as individual actions. It involves its members in both long range and immediate matters according to their ability. Everyone has their own task to perform as inventiveness and appropriate effort are required of all. Each member participates in the whole of family life: all look together for solutions and all share in the fruits of individual and group activity. This develops the capacity of each family member to live together and cooperate with others. This promotes their realization as creators on the microsocial scale. In this way the family becomes the first and the irreplaceable school of social life, an example and a stimulus for broader social contracts in the spirit of respect, justice, dialogue and love. This is indispensable in order for an individual to become a truly creative participant in the individual and social dimensions of life.⁴

By initiating its members into the world of symbols and developing in them the capacity to know and interpret the world and themselves, by forming in them social optimism, involving them in numerous activities, and at the same time teaching them the ability to dialogue, the family develops their creative qualities, thereby making them capable of more creative actions. Where the family does not fulfill its role properly in these spheres, institutions of different kinds should provide help, but should never aim at replacing the family in this capacity. Observations made so far teach us that man as creator develops best within the family. This development of a creative person is the most important task of the family, as the school for human enrichment which is realized through creative activity.

Every family has its own history, preserves remembrances of its ancestors, cultivates its genealogical bonds, and uses words and idioms peculiar to itself. It evaluates social reality in its own way, possesses specific values, and lives up to its own norms and patterns of behavior. It has its own beliefs, political and social views, traditions and feasts, each celebrated after its own fashion. All of this creates the culture of a given family and accounts for the fact that, although families live in identical houses, provided with standard furniture and appliances, nevertheless each one arranges its own apartment differently, uses things differently, and spends its leisure time distinctly. Interpersonal contact within each family has its peculiar content and form: guests are welcomed and bid farewell in different ways; members feel their distinctness in relation to other families and the global society. For example, a Polish family has a sense of being different from an Italian family, and both sense this distinctiveness with respect to Japanese family.

Finding itself in the center of social, political and cultural transformations, the family must take an active stance, as well as with regard to different cultural groups living next door, from some groups it accepts some prevalent elements and assimilates these into its own life. Before other groups it adopts an attitude of isolation and defense in order to preserve its own cultural distinctiveness. To maintain such a position, today's family has developed a special selective function. Though this existed in the past, the modern family has perfected it and exercises it more consciously.

This selective function forms something of a cocoon which surrounds the family, isolating it from other families and from global society. At the same time this serves as a kind of filter which allows some elements of global society and various cultural groups to enter the family, while keeping out others. Because of this consciously selective function, the family accepts only certain values, norms and patterns of behavior from the many existing outside, and having accepted these it puts them into practice after its own manner. From commonly used language it takes only a few words and idioms, and introduces into its own life only those feasts and customs which can be integrated into those already practiced. It connects its history with but a few events and changes in global society and forms a family ideology in order to set guidelines for its members. Through its developed selective function, the family sensitizes its members to the fact that not everything publicly proclaimed is equally true, that not every novelty is good. It teaches them how to participate more reflectively in a continually changing society and introduces order into the many highly diversified elements which make up the individual's life environment and link one with the local ambient. It compels the individual to reflect on the changing world, thereby giving one the greater stability needed for the correct development of one's personality.

Due to this well developed and consciously exercised selective function, the family is characterized by relative isolation as well as by relative openness to the outside world. This enables it to preserve and develop its own culture without alienating itself from its environment or global society.

Possessing and developing its own culture enables the family to serve in a number of ways.

a) It represents for its members the natural and fundamental environment for the formation of its own value system, norms and patterns of behaviors.

b) At the same time it introduces them into the general culture as well as into the culture of the connected groups.

c) It moderates the speed of cultural changes in society. As a rule, this is a cultural advantage because the family does not tolerate very drastic changes in the area of values, norms and patterns of behavior and drastic changes in these spheres would arrest the development of culture.

d) The possession and development by each family of its own culture prevents the uniformity of the general culture. This has special significance when only one model of culture is being realized in a society.

Transmission of culture in families in the past proceeded in one direction: from the oldest to the youngest. The older generation introduced the younger to the fullness of its own family culture, environment and nation, to its own experiences and practical wisdom. This structure still functions, but a new phenomenon has appeared alongside it: young generations more often and in ever greater scope transmit the conquests of engineering and organization to the older ones, and impose on them new values, norms and patterns of behavior. This is most evident when the older generations adopt from the younger new forms of leisure, dress, expression and interior decoration. This transmission of culture within the same family has created a pluralism which certainly is more difficult and interesting, more conducive to reflection and to making personal choices. The family is the place for dialogue in cultural communication which embraces all generations: the older ones link the younger to the recent and more distant past, while the younger ones connect the older with the present and future. In this situation the impact of the older generation in the communication of cultural heritage has diminished. Nevertheless, for a number of reasons the family still plays the most important role in the formation of basic values, norms and patterns of behavior among the young, especially with regard to the defence of the value and dignity of the human person.

First, the family comes into being and functions on the basis of love, which enables persons to preserve their individuality even as they form a single unit. In this kind of unity each member feels that the thoughts and efforts of others are directed toward him or her. One finds oneself in the center of the family group and serves the others in that family group without asking what he or she gets for it. This giving, as well as the contact with the other person, is already a value or reward. Such a situation, existing only in the family, makes it possible for a particular person to experience that he or she is important and valuable because others make sacrifices for his or her sake, even to the degree of being ready to give up their lives.

Secondly, more than in the past, adult members of the modern family, especially parents, concentrate their efforts around the child, who is the center of their concerns. They devote much time to the care of, and to contact with, their child providing thereby a continuing opportunity for the child to experience his or her value and dignity. From the earliest days a child feels his or her worth within the family.

Thirdly, in today's family a far-reaching autonomy is given to the individual. The family is directed toward helping in the development of the child's likings and talents. This requires a common effort as well as some self-denial on the part of others. It convinces individuals of their importance and worth since others freely bear hardships and make sacrifices for them.

This climate of family culture forms attitudes of generosity, unselfishness, friendship, piety, patience, self-sacrifice, reconciliation and peace, patriotism and religiosity. These attitudes of individuals, which are then realized in their social life, result in making social life more human and in giving a greater degree of satisfaction to those who participate therein. This creative role of the family in the formation of culture is extremely important today because the quality of mutual relationships rather than institutions and organizations is decisive for the culture of any society. These relationships differentiate societies into those whose people may live in prosperity but somewhat "less humanly" and those in which people may live a more difficult life but in a more rich human atmosphere. The ideal is that societies live both prosperously and "humanly", but the realization of this postulate depends upon the degree to which the family fulfills its role in the creation of culture through the formation in its members of a sense of value and dignity with the accompanying humane attitudes.

FAMILY AS LINK TO NATIONAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY⁶

The family fulfills this role by cultivating customs and by the whole range of exchange between the lives of generations which the family most natural encompasses.

1. Many objects and modes of behavior which are symbolic in nature come into play within family life. Through them the family expresses its religious, social and political convictions, comprehends its value system and consolidates within them the content and quality of mutual family relationships. These symbolic objects and modes of behavior function individually and in groups, thereby creating the entire complex of customs connected with events and celebrations of the family and nation.

For example, in the Polish family the customs richest in symbolic modes of behavior and objects are those associated with Christmas, Easter, All Saints, birthdays, marriage and the death of a member of the family. These are closely united with the whole of national and religious culture, and thus they possess an especially rich symbolism, developed rituals and

stability. Through the centuries new symbolic objects and modes of behavior are added and become an integral part of national culture. Many customs once practiced apart from the family in local and regional communities are now preserved only within the family.

A special feature of family customs is the lack of radicalism in their transformation. Newly introduced elements do not supersede those existing for a long time, but coexist with them in harmonious symbiosis. Symbolic objects and modes of behavior are not discarded easily, even if they have already lost their former meaning for those who practice them. That is why a Polish family, for example, which has lost its ties with religion nevertheless preserves Christmas customs which are full of religious significance, though without understanding their content.

Such customs as language are an important part of national culture. They contain the history, ideas, beliefs and nature of the social relations of the nation. Therefore, their preservation marks the continuation of national culture of which they are the bearer. Here the family plays the role of bridge, as it were, between old and new times, as well as between individual and nation. Because customs cultivated in families as small groups of persons are experienced very personally with a heavy emotional charge, they anchor the individual deeply in what we call the cultural heritage of the family and nation.

Those who organize family customs are as a rule the older generations, above all the women. How family customs function, including the emotional climate during family celebrations and feasts, depends mostly upon them. As customs play very important educational and socializing roles for all family members, especially for the youngest generation, the family enriches its customs and tries to celebrate them as solemnly as possible, especially when there are growing children.

2. Integrating at least three generations, and increasingly even four, the family is the place where life itself is shared.⁷ The older generations tell the younger ones about their childhood and youth; they relate the events in which they participated or which they witnessed or heard about from others. Their stories are full of scenes from the oldtime dances, receptions, celebrations, weddings, wedding receptions and funerals. They do not pass over in silence stories of quarrels and reconciliations in the family and among neighbors. If it were not for the stories of grandparents, many a child in the Polish family today would not know that during the Christmas Vigil a sheaf of grain was usually brought in and placed in the corner of the room, and hay was placed under the table and become a favorite sleeping place for the children; that for Pentecost not only the living quarters but the house itself was decorated with sweet rush and birch branches; that in the Kielce region when a girl was ready for marriage the family home was painted blue, etc.

The older generations hand down the whole family history to the younger ones, and link it with the local setting and the region, as well as with global events. They pass on not only a cut-and-dried description of facts which the young generation can find in history books, but add their own interpretation of everything. Recreating history in this way, they form the family ideology as well. When the younger generation listens to the stories and songs of older persons, when it sees their reactions to past and current matters, their gestures and overall behavior, it discovers its roots within the family and national history, reaching back to the deepest sources of its national, religious and family identity.

Studying history as taught in school, the younger generation learns about great events, wars, revolutions, social and religious movements, and famous cities. Through direct contact with older generations, however, it gets to know of all the little facts of the past regarding relatives and acquaintances who were full of devotion and unheard-of courage, or of some small cities, towns and villages for which one may look in vain on the map. This is history on a small scale, but pregnant with strong personal experiences. Thanks to precisely such stories of the older generations, young people develop a more personal approach to the past which is immensely helpful in coming to understand and appreciate it. This is the incorporation of the young generation into the past and its own region. When it comes to evaluation, not at all infrequently a young person evaluates a book dealing with the latest national history in the light of the experience, knowledge and careers of his or her grandparents; they are the real reviewers. Thanks to them the young person realizes that he or she is dealing with two different histories, and such an affirmation can evoke a deeper interest in the past of one's country.

In the overall transmission of the past, the older generations include their wishes concerning the young as well. They stress what should be adopted from the family history and consequently handed down to succeeding generations. In many young minds and hearts, love of country, freedom and justice develop grounded in the stories of older family members, concerning relatives who fought for these values, were imprisoned, had to leave the country and even gave their lives. Because of contact with older generations, the lives of the young are rooted in the history and environment of the family and bound up with the role it played. While communicating the past to the young, elders form in them the future and invest them with characteristics of continuity and stability which are indispensable for the preservation of the distinctness and identity of the culture in the society as a whole.

When the family fulfills its role with regard to the formation of culture in the areas described above, the effects may be diverse, depending on many conditions, the following, however, seem the most important.

1. The internal family atmosphere. The more positive this is, the more it is free from continual conflicts, based on mutual trust and imbued with emotional bonds, the more fully does mutual communication of culture take place between generations.

2. Firmness and stability in the life of the family. All forms of disintegration in the life of the family especially divorce as well as too frequent changes in the setting of a family's life make more difficult or even disturb the exercise of the creative role of the family in the formation of culture. The creation and communication of culture require peace, though the creative inspiration itself is an effect of the author's spiritual tension.

3. The proportionate sharing in the entire married-family life of both spouses-parents. By reason of their different psychophysical characteristics, distinct kind of work and aspirations, each stresses different elements in the family culture. Predominance by one of the spouses-parents, or even worse, the total cutoff of one from the creation and communication of the family's culture, impoverishes the processes of culture within the family.

4. Bonds between the basic family, relatives and befriended families. The creative role of the family in the formation of culture requires richness of content. The more often positive contacts are maintained by parents and children with relatives of various degrees as well as with befriended families, the greater and more diverse is their richness. This is of special importance in large cities to which young people are drawn and where they set up their own families. In such cases they should not isolate themselves or lose contact with their former environment.

5. An adequate standard of housing-living conditions. In order to fulfill properly its creative role in the area of culture, it is necessary for the family to have adequate housing conditions as well as relatively high salaries. Material destitution or very difficult housing-living circumstances make it quite difficult or even impossible for the family to fulfill its role in the formation of culture to the measure mentioned above. In the event the family itself is not able to guarantee these circumstances, the various social and state institutions should come to its aid.

6. Leisure or family time after work and the satisfaction of basic needs. This is time shared by the family members as they play together, tell stories, exchange information and participate in joint activities. The mutual communication of culture is facilitated in this way and vision for the future is formed.

7. Openness to transcendent values. Their presence in the life of the family widens and deepens interests as well as experiences. They provide motivation for doing good for others, for living in truth and for searching after what is beautiful. Thus, they facilitate cultural exchange between generations.

Catholic University of Lublin

Lublin, Poland

Notes to "The Role of the Family in the Formation and

Transmission of Culture"

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