The purpose of this chapter is not to explore in detail the indigenous symbol system of Africa, but to discuss individual groups of symbols as sources of insight into African orientations to life. Many people regret the fact that, besides Egypt, the rest of Africa has not invented an alphabetic system. They overlook the fact that Africans have been using both visual and oral "picture words" for a considerable time to express, transmit and store their thoughts, emotions and attitudes. All over Africa, visual images and ordinary objects are used symbolically to communicate knowledge, feelings and values. As symbols play such an important role in the African conception of reality, a sound understanding of African patterns of thought and feeling requires an appreciation of the nature and function of symbolism as a medium of communication in African culture.

CONCERNING THE USES OF SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

Because the nature and role of signs and symbols in the process of transmitting information are easily confused, a clear notion of the difference in the way they are used in communication is necessary for appreciating the cognitive value of indigenous symbols.

Natural Signs

For our purpose it is necessary to identify two main types of signs, namely natural and artificial signs, both of which are used to provide stimuli for fairly determined appropriate responses.

In everyday communication, natural objects and events are employed as natural signs, thus smoke is taken to indicate the presence of fire, gives rise to the proverb, "There is no smoke without fire." Sometimes wet streets are a sign that it has rained; and a student's yawning in class may be a sign that he is tired, sleepy or that the lesson being given is boring. A scar on the body may indicate an accident.

A natural sign is thus a part of a greater event of a complex condition, and indicates the rest of the situation of which it is a notable feature. Sign then is a symptom of a state of affairs.

There are three significant features to be noted in the use of signs in communication: the sign, its object and the subject who relates the sign and the object signified. The sign and its object (for example, smoke and fire) are logically related to form a pair. In any such combination one of the terms is less important--smoke, in this case--than the other--fire. The less important term, smoke, becomes the sign of the more important one, fire. The less important term is normally more easily available than the other term in the pair. For example, a scar as a sign is more easily available than the accident which is inferred from the presence of the scar. The accident then is the meaning of the scar as a sign.

Artificial Signs

Sometimes we produce artificial or arbitrary objects and actions and correlate them with important ones that serve as their meanings. These are called artificial signs. Traffic signs are good examples of artificial signs. For example, red light has been used arbitrarily to mean "stop" or "prohibition." Colors are also used arbitrarily to mean many different things. Thus in the indigenous Ghanaian culture brown is used as a color for mourning and so brown clothes are customarily worn to funerals and memorial services. Placing the arm or arms across the middle of the head or clasping both hands at the back of the head is used as another sign of mourning in Ghanian society.

Similar artificial signs abound in other African cultures. They do not form parts of conditions which they naturally signify, but are used arbitrarily by the culture to impart specifically agreed-upon information. There is no limit to what such signs may mean, and so a sound of a bell may indicate any of the following: to begin church worship or classes, to change lessons, to call attention to what is being said, etc.

A sign can be taken or designed to mean so many things that a misinterpretation of signs is a real possibility. A "stick-up thumb" in Ghana is an insulting and vulgar sign, but in America it is used as a way of asking for a lift. Even within the same Ghanaian culture the left hand is ritually an unclean sign; but because it is not used normally to do evil as the right hand sometimes is, it has also become a sign of peace and is used, especially among the Ewe of Ghana, to prepare the reconciliation libation water called dzatsi.

However ambiguous be the use of signs, they furnish information about the environment and about intentions and feelings of people, and elicit appropriate reactions. Their major limitation, apart from the ambiguity in their use, is in the fact that they do not point characteristically beyond themselves to hidden meanings and information as to symbols.

Symbols in General

One great difference between the use of signs and symbols is the degree of qualitative information that is conveyed through them. While signs provide simple information, symbols are used to communicate complex knowledge, abstract truths and ideas about life and its meaning. The simplest example of a sign might be the use of a personal name, in introducing someone. For example, if Fidel Castro were present and introduced, everyone present would stand up. In this case, the name is used as a sign and so calls forth an appropriate action. But if the name, Castro, were used in a discourse it would make us think of what the person bearing the name represents in consciousness. In other words, the name in this case is used as a symbol; it will not call forth actions appropriate to their objects, but will make us think of its objects in certain ways. A symbol is therefore a vehicle for the conception of an object, enabling us to conceive or form a view of an object; it calls forth mental images. Thus, for example, Fidel Castro in his relationship to the United States of America might give rise to the thought of a modern Old Testament David who stood against a Goliath. The conception of a symbol therefore consists in what it means, and Castro as a symbol may mean the fact of the continued existence of the weak and the powerless in spite of threats from the mighty or it may mean the spirit of defiance. A symbol is therefore a powerful instrument of thought and conceptual abstraction.

Below are some examples of indigenous African symbols and the conceptions they evoke in the mind:

1. The elephant: symbol of power and kingship

2. The lion: symbol of ferocity, danger and royalty

3. Woman: symbol of peace, productivity, creativity, life and growth

4. Rugged Triangle: symbol of stability and inner repose; true life is secure, stable and lasting or has safe and stable foundations; life that has a solid basis (see figure 1).

5. The ram and its horns: symbol of pacific disposition combined with strength and power (see figure 2).

Figure 1. Eto Figure 2. Dwinnimmen

In all the examples given, the conception of the objects are derived from certain unique and relatively enduring traits noticeable in the objects used as symbols. Thus, the two traits that are characteristic of the ram are "peaceful nature" represented by the general nature of sheep and "strength and power" represented by the horns and their use in fighting.

The meaning of a symbol, like that of a sign, is determined by the subject using it, so sheep can be a symbol of humility in one culture and a symbol of stupidity in another. The serpent can be a symbol of evil in one culture and of life and continuity in another. The subject and his culture then are responsible for the meaning given to any particular symbol. This synthetic process of giving meaning to symbols is aptly expressed by the proverb: "The Potter, and not the pot, is responsible for the shape of the pot." Thus, the egg as a symbol in Ghanaian culture has several symbolic meanings: feminine beauty for those who think that a girl with an egg-shaped head is a beauty; it can be a symbol of easy labour in childbirth, because some people are of the opinion that the hen does not labour much in laying eggs. The egg is also a symbol of new and creative life, of fertility and fecundity. Finally, it is used as a symbol of love and of state power, which are considered very fragile. The top of a linguist staff in Ghana is therefore sometimes made of carved hand with an egg in it, and this is translated as: "Power held in one hand is not safe."

In positive terms the symbol recommends the virtue of sharing political power and so could be called a "symbol of democracy"

Figure 3. Asi kple azi

Suitability of Symbols

The preceding discussion of African symbols leads to the question: What generally makes an object a suitable symbol? Usually objects, plants and animals are found more suitable as symbols because they run true to type, e.g., the egg is characteristically fragile and so can be effectively used to represent the delicate nature of love and the loving relationships; fire is always warm and so can be used to symbolize the warmth of sincere love. Human nature, even though complex and changeable, is used to represent certain broad traits. Thus, woman in the indigenous culture has come to represent the creative principle of life and man has become a symbol of strength and destructiveness. Boys and girls among the Ewe and Akan of Ghana, Togo and Benin are therefore given names that are characteristic of their natures. A boy may be given a name such as: Oko (Akan), "War"; Bekoe (Akan), "He has come as a fighter"; Tukpe (Ewe), "Coolness"; Nyuinyo (Ewe), "The good is not a taboo to anyone"; Blewusi (Ewe)--"Take it easy"; to reflect what they normally bring to people's minds.

As observed earlier, human beings, objects, animals and plants are found suitable as symbols on the basis of any enduring traits they may have and in the minds of people represent these enduring traits. Thus, in the indigenous folklore and proverbs the antelope is a symbol of puniness and powerlessness.

TYPES OF INDIGENOUS SYMBOLS

The indigenous cultures of Africa are replete with symbols and symbolic expressions. In the indigenous Ghanaian culture, symbols are used in different life situations, and on the basis of the types of contexts in which they are used, they may be classified into six major groups with unavoidable overlappings. The six groups are adinkra symbols, stool symbols, linguist staff symbols, religious symbols, ritual symbols and oral literary symbols.

Adinkra Symbols. The adinkra symbols derive their name and popularity from one of the national cloths of Ghana called adinkra. The word adinkra comes from the Twi words di nkra⁽²⁵⁾ meaning "to say goodbye." The adinkra cloth is traditionally a mourning cloth and is normally worn "to say goodbye" to the dead and to express sympathy for the bereaved family, and so is commonly seen at funerals and memorial services. It is usually adorned with symbols that express various views of life and death.⁽²⁶⁾ Four adinkra symbols are given below.

1. Owu atwedee, "the ladder of death, everybody will climb it one day to go to God." This is a

symbol of the inevitability of death, which is not a curse but a homegoing to one's father.

Figure 4. Owu atwedee

2. Bewu "Unless God dies, I will not die" is a symbol of the immortality of the soul (se [Ewe])okra [Akan]. The two symbols are used to give a true African meaning to human existence: life and death are two aspects of one reality and one cannot be had without the other.

Figure 5 Myame Bewu

ana mawu

3. Gye Nyame, "Only God" is an abstract symbol representing the dependability of God. Its Ewe version called Mauw ko is a right hand drawn with a clenched fist and the finger pointing straight up meaning "I lean only on God alone" because he is dependable (see figures 6 and 7).

Figure 6. Gye Nyame Figure 7. Mawu Ko

The people of the indigenous society use the adinkra cloth as an appropriate canvas for displaying traditional symbols which express their unique apprehension of reality.

Stool Symbols. The traditional stool of Ghana, like the adinkra cloth, is used as a medium for displaying various symbols. The stool itself is a symbol in its own right and is considered as the abode of the soul (se, okra) of a nation or an individual. Every individual or state must therefore have his or her stool. Formerly a bride was given a stool by her husband so as to settle her soul in the husband's house. In some cases, a mother is given a

Figure 8 Sankofa Figure 9 Nyansapow

new stool on the birth of a child. This act is to reinforce the continued stay of her soul in her husband's house (see figure 8).

The stool as a symbol of the individual's soul has become a highly valued personal property. Thus, if the owner is not sitting on it, theoretically nobody else is allowed to sit on it and so it is generally laid on its side.

The stool is conceived as a female principle and its seat part is shaped like a crescent and represents the warm embrace of a mother welcoming her beloved child home from a journey or from the day's labors. The crescent part of the stool is called atuu, which is a word used to embrace a person arriving from a journey.

The middle portion of the stool is carved as a symbolic representation of an object such as an elephant, a sankofa bird, or of an abstract idea such as "Gye Nyame". The stool usually derives its name from the symbol that is used in its middle portion, which is called (in Ewe) titina (middle) or nufiala (teacher), because the particular message of any stool is found in its middle portion. The message of the Nyansapow (Wisdom) Stool (see figure 9) may be used as an illustration. It is rendered as: "The present generation cannot lay aside easily the wisdom of the past; and they can only do this if they have something better to replace it." The stool is therefore used as a seat as well as an aid to teach something important.

Linguist Staff Symbols. At the court of any Ghanaian chief, there is always an important official called (in Akan) "okycame." He is a linguist or spokesman through whom the chief speaks to his elders and the people, and through whom the chief is, in turn, spoken to on both private and public occasions.

The linguist is usually appointed on the basis of his mature experience, expert knowledge of traditional matters, tact and diplomacy. He is a close adviser of the chief and pronounces judgment at the court on behalf of his chief and his elders.

Each linguist has a staff of office, which is carved in wood and topped with a symbolic emblem, usually covered with silver or gold leaf. The emblem depicts a proverb or expresses a highly cherished value in the society. The five popular symbols that are seen on the tops of linguist staffs are given below.

1. "Three heads joined together" (figure 10). This depicts the value of consultation and discussion in arriving at mature decisions especially at the court of the chief. It is based on a proverb that says: "One head does not go into council."

Figure 10 Tikro

2. "The crowing rooster (cock)" (figure 11). This is a symbol of good leadership. The belief among the Ewe is that a good leader is a person who wakes up his followers to their responsibilities and privileges. This symbol is used as a guiding principle of administration by the Chiefs of Anyako in the Volta Region of Ghana.

Figure 11 Kpodola nyui

3. "A hen stepping on her chicks" (figure 12). This is a symbol of parental disci pline. It is the duty of parents to correct their children, and parental correction should not be taken as lack of affection for children but a deep concern for their good.

Figure 12 Akoko nan

4. "The pineapple" (figure 13). The pineapple symbol represents the value of deliberation and careful thought, prerequisites for sound decisions at the Chief's court. The symbol is derived from a proverb which says: "If you are in a hurry to eat a pineapple, you end up eating a green (i.e. unripe) one."

Figure 13 Aborobe

5. "A man holding a snake's neck" (figure 14). Like many other symbols, this one is based on another proverb which says: "If you get hold of the head (neck) of a snake, what is left is a piece of rope." This is advice to chiefs to address themselves to the essential elements of their administration and to the important needs of their people.

Figure 14 Owo ti

It has become clear from the preceding discussion that in the indigenous Ghanaian society, the clothes that people wear, the stools they sit on and what they use as aids are means of self-expression and a medium for teaching both the young and the old.

Religious and Ritual Symbols. All the preceding visual symbols were born of religious or philosophical beliefs. But there are other symbols that express specific beliefs about the High God and reveal the conceptions of his nature. Thus, "Nyame-dua" (see figure 15) symbolizes the belief in the abiding presence and protection of God. [insert figure 16] in the Mawu-cult among the Ewe, the rugged triangle made of sticks is a symbol derived from the opening proverb of a traditional prayer which runs as follows: "Three things make life" (see figure 16).

Figure 15 Nyame Dua Figure 16 Eto

This is another way of saying: Anything put on a tripod (in this case, of the traditional outdoor stone stove) will not fall down. This is a symbol of stability and inner repose called Eto, i.e., three. This state of being is also described as "cool" (efa in Ewe) and is one of the defining characteristics of the Ewe High God. Segbo, who is therefore referred to as Fafato, "the Father of Owner of Coolness." Peace has consequently become a necessary condition of a life, of human creativity and of growth. So one proverb says: "The yam thrives well when its mound is cool."

The other very important religious symbol is the woman, who is used as a symbol of the Ewe High God in the capacity of the primordial cosmic unity-totality and the creative principle of life. The unity of the godhead is referred to as Segbo, which represents the fullness of the divine being; it is referred to in its totality as Mawu-Lisa or Dada Segbo-Lisa. The dual name for the High God comprises the female and the male principles, which are the creating principles of life; one is invalid without the other. But the High God as a creative principle is characteristically symbolized by a woman.

This makes it clear why among some African ethnic groups a woman officiates at puberty rites and at weddings. These rituals have their symbolic meanings. The purpose and essence of life to the indigenous African society are to be creative and productive, and the whole of life is seen as a field in which the individual plants the seeds of his life. The personal Ewe name agbefanu, meaning "Life is like sowing," and the proverb, "Woman without man is like a field without seed," sum up the indigenous creative view of life. This is an essential component of Africanity.

PROVERBS AS ORAL LITERARY SYMBOLS

In speaking and thinking, oral literary forms such as fables, myths, maxims and proverbs are used in the traditional society to express beliefs, values and feelings. Proverbs which are normally short and pithy sayings are very popular devices used to state metaphorically certain general truths about life. One Yoruba proverb says: "A proverb is a horse which can carry one swiftly to the discovery of ideas."

Proverbs and Meaning

This Yoruba proverb defines accurately the symbolic function of a proverb and helps us to understand, the general function of proverbs. Instead of being an old-fashioned way of communication, proverbs lead us to conceive and understand the essence of human relationships, events, life's situations and the behaviour patterns of people. They establish certain value bases to help us comprehend and order our actions, and they enshrine the vital conclusions filtered from life's experiences. Take for example the philosophical question: "What is knowledge?" Several answers are given to this question, not in the form of learned treatises, but in the form of simple proverbs. One says, "Knowledge is like a baobab tree and so no one person can embrace it with both arms."⁽²⁷⁾ This is another way of saying, "Knowledge grows and grows and so there is no end to what any one individual can know." Another proverb states the same truth thus: "He who knows all, knows nothing." This understanding of knowledge is designed to lead to the development of an attitude of intellectual curiosity and open-mindedness.

A proverb normally has primary and secondary meanings, sometimes referred to as denotative or manifest meaning, on the one hand, and connotative or latent meaning, on the other. In the proverb, "The lion and the antelope live in the same forest yet the antelope has time to grow," the lion and the antelope firstly denote carnivorous and herbivorous quadrupeds, respectively; connotatively, however, the "lion" represents "forces of destruction" while the "antelope" represents man in his puniness and powerlessness. The main point of the proverb is "There is a power in the universe that preserves the life of the weak and helpless in the face of all that threatens it."

It is not always easy to make out the connotative meaning of a proverb, but, if its connotative meaning is grasped, it is found to be a vehicle used by our fathers and mothers to approach, apprehend and recollect reality in their experience.

Uses of Proverbs

Proverbs are a very effective mode of communication, and their correct and persuasive use in speech is always taken as a sign of sound education, maturity, cultural sophistication and wisdom. Among their many uses we can discern the following:

To Express Abstract Truths. Proverbs are generally used to communicate truths that may be abstract and difficult to grasp. Such a proverb usually dramatizes and configures the bare truths in the facts of everyday life and world. In the proverb form the truths become so substantial that they stimulate the imagination and challenge the understanding.

Examples:

Proverb

Abstract Idea

1) There is no quarrel between

the eye and sleep.

Learn to tolerate each other--Tolerance

2) The freedom that comes from

ignorance enslaves the one

who entertains it.

Knowledge is freedom

3) It is only the stupid slave who

says that his condition of

bondage is good after a heavy

meal.

The freedom of self-determination is better than material well-being

Guide to Conduct. Many proverbs are used as bases for judging unacceptable modes of behaviour and thus function as general guides to conduct.

Examples:

Proverb

Principle

1) If you visit the country of frogs and you find them squatting, you must squat too even though you may find it inconvenient.

You need to make some adjustment in a new situation of life.

2) You do not use the left hand to

point the way to your father's

village.

Learn to appreciate and admire what you have.

3) Once you have made up your mind to cross a river by walking

through it, you do not mind

getting your stomach wet.

Be firm in carrying out your resolutions.

As Commentary on Human Behaviour. Some of the proverbs are careful observations and commentaries on human behaviour and so provide useful insight into human nature.

Examples:

Proverb

Commentary

1) A person who does not lick his

lips cannot blame the harmattan

for drying them.

People who are not prepared to help themselves are usually misrepresented and badly treated by others.

2) It is usually the insect in your

cloth that bites you.

Sometimes it is your relatives or close friends who will ruin or betray you.

3) Ti is the coward who says, "They are insulting us."

It is the coward who leaves the defense of his honor to others

To Express Values

Proverbs display unmistakably the main value-orientations of indigenous African society. They express all kinds of values from the moral, spiritual, humanistic, economic and intellectual to the material.

Examples:

Proverb

Value-Orientation

1) There is no wealth where there

are no children.

The importance of children.

2) It is one's deeds that are

counted, not one's years.

The meaning of time is in positive deeds. (Creative living.)

3) Goodness sells itself;

badness walks around.

The value of a thing is in the inherent power that it has to satisfy human needs, and it is this power that attracts people to it.

In the following two extended Ghanaian proverbs, the value of man features in the first one and the value of life in the second:

a. It is the human being who counts,

Call on gold, gold does not respond;

Call on clothes, clothes do not respond;

It is the human being who counts.

b. Don't let me die in the day,

Don't let me die at night,

Don't let me die at all,

But let me die.

The point of the first is fairly obvious, but that of the second needs some explaining. In the second one, which is a prayer proverb, the individual expresses his desire to see and appreciate the beauty of life and nature (line one) and to be sexually active (line two) so as to fulfill his creative being and have many children who may perpetuate his name, beliefs and philosophy of life (line three). After he has fulfilled his destiny he would be happy to join the fathers (line 4). In this proverb we see the indigenous understanding of life and death as polar opposites which complement each other.

From the examination of the various indigenous symbols, it is clear that they constitute valuable source-materials for the understanding of African orientations to life.