THE BACKGROUND
The papers in this collection are the result of a common endeavor by the department of philosophy of Makerere University. As participants in the task of nation building, its staff members wish to offer this collective contribution from their discipline towards a better understanding of the past, an improvement of the present, and a reliable perception of the future, encouraged in this latter objective by the motto of Makerere University, "We build for the future."1 A substantial role in the fulfillment of this departmental plan was played by the Council for Research in Values and Philosophy (RVP), with its continuing seminars on "Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Life."2 Its timely inspiration from its secretary Prof. George F. McLean coalesced the ideas and energies of the Makerere department of philosophy towards the accomplishment of this task. The theme, "Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Life," encouraged by the Council for RVP re-echoed a fundamental issue in African philosophy with which Makerere philosophers have felt strongly identified.
The realization of the project went through four stages. It began with department planning, when the general theme was appraised and evoked specific topics prompted by the current interests of African thought and life, within the specific context of Uganda; this first stage ended with every participant choosing a specific topic and the general approach to it, aware of the related choice by the other members of staff. The second stage consisted of a period of several weeks for the personal writing of the papers; as each of them was completed, it was made available to every staff member for analysis. The third stage comprised a series of staff seminars during which each paper was discussed for about three hours. The final stage was for the personal editing of the papers by their authors in the light of what had emerged from the seminar discussions.
The papers differ not only in the variety of their specific topics, but also in their approach. Each paper is characterized by a different perspective prompted by a particular branch of philosophy; thus, J.K. Kigongo and E. Wamala's perspective is mainly political and social philosophy, P. Kaboha's metaphysical, S.A. Mwanahewa's logical, Zubairi bin Nasseem's epistemological, A.T. Dalfovo's ethical, E.K.M. Beyaraaza's axiological. The common denominator of philosophy and the general theme bearing on the present life as a point of arrival of the past heritage, merges this topical and methodological variety into unity.
The papers' considerations are both specific and general, as the very nature of philosophy suggests. The specificity of the papers ensues from their being contextual to the Ugandan situation; the experience behind them is the stimulating history of Uganda, the composite heterogeneity of its people, its economic and political structures, its patterns of thought, and a variety of other specific aspects of Ugandan life. At the same time, these particular considerations are not intended as an end in themselves, but extend to vaster issues in an attempt to achieve a full understanding and find their final explanation. Aime Cesaire asserts that, "There are two ways to lose oneself: by segregation walled in the particular or by dilution in the universal."3 As philosophers do, the authors of these papers try to break down the wall of the particular to avoid being segregated within their specific experiences; at the same time, they strive to resist being diluted in the general and losing the identity of their issues and arguments. In this attempt at transcending a particular for a general vision of reality, the papers are not divorced from the specific context that prompts them, because philosophical generalizations need to be ever supported by detailed premises and related logical inferences. Thus, even though the papers are rooted in the Ugandan experience that supports their rationalization, several of their conclusions transcend this experience and apply to the African context and to humanity in general. In this way, the authors of these papers attempt to lead the way for all people to meet on the common platform of thought where divisive boundaries are known as prejudices, and as such are not supposed to exist.
Guided by their discipline, the writers of these papers try to bring the events they consider and the results of their analysis into a structured holistic solution. A partial analysis of problems leads to their partial solution of them; as philosophy attempts an integral solution of problems, it strives for a comprehensive approach. Furthermore, the integral approach appears to be demanded by the present trend of analysis. The challenging conditions of Uganda have received qualified and competent attention by several analysts. One may recall, by way of example, some of the latest publications in this connection: Beyond Crisis, Development Issues in Uganda. by P.D. Wiebe and C.P. Dodge, 1987;4 War, Violence, and Children in Uganda, by C.P. Dodge and M. Raundalen, 1987;5 The Roots of Instability in Uganda, by S.R. Karugire, in 1988;6 Uganda Now, by H.B. Hansen and M. Twaddle, in 1988;7 Conflict Resolution in Uganda, by K. Rupesinghe, in 1989.8 These contributions are sustained by the specific interests of the social sciences. Interesting and necessary though this particular type of approach is, it nevertheless needs to be supplemented by an attempt at a holistic vision of the issues involved with a view to contributing toward an integral solution. The demand by many social scientists that solutions to problems be radical needs to be completed by the observation that a solution cannot be radical unless it is also integral, for a solution cannot reach the roots of a problem (as "radical " implies) unless it considers all aspects of it (as "integral" implies).
THE PAPERS
Zubairi bin Nasseem's paper, "African Heritage and The Contemporary Life: An Experience of Epistemological Change," attempts to elucidate some epistemological aspects of traditional African philosophy. It also inquires into some epistemological changes that have occurred in the African experience throughout its history up to the present time.
The paper explains how the knowing process in Africa has undergone tremendous changes; at the same time, important aspects of traditional experience have survived into contemporary times. The new and the old exist in some interconnectedness. This "existential" fact calls for interthinking, which is germane to an inter-disciplinary endeavor crucially necessary in "our" contemporary life. Otherwise the "ours" may tend to emphasize the "we," to the detriment of benefitting from the view-point of the "other."
Towards realizing a better understanding of each other and a tolerant coexistence, attention is drawn to the fact that some of the problems of knowledge today arise from the crisis of paradigm. When analyzing the epistemological changes that have occurred in the African heritage, one sees that these are due partly to the fact that the Euro-African meeting is really a collision of a science-paradigm with an intuitive-paradigm. If one adds to these two the revealed-paradigm of Islam which preceded the European intrusion into Africa, one ends with the challenge of "The Triple Heritage."
The paper concludes by stressing the fact of these traditions. Therefore a resolution of this epistemological crisis lies in nurturing the three cultural-philosophical traits into a federation of world-cultures.
E. Wamala's paper, "The Social Political Philosophy of Traditional Buganda Society: Breaks and Continuity into the Present," discusses the issue of continuity and change in the area of social and political philosophy as traditional Buganda society moves into the post-independence era. Much of what is said about Buganda is representative of many African societies in transition.
First, the concept "traditional African society" is analyzed, and it is pointed out that this can refer to African societies as they were in the past (historical perspective) or to contemporary rural communities where ancient social and political values and practices still hold (contemporary perspective). Traditional African societies in this paper has been used in the former sense.
Discussion of the nature of democratic practice in traditional Buganda necessitates elucidation of the structure of its traditional form of government, found to be a limited monarchy with hereditary rulers. It is argued that this institution of hereditary rulers ensures smooth transfer of power and hence stability and political continuity. This social and political fact contrasts very sharply with what the paper terms the "open door policy", where today every citizen by virtue of his citizenship qualifies for the "monarchy," but often comes to this with incongruous political ideologies that result in a "legitimation crisis."
The paper further points out how the idea of consensus was central to the understanding of democracy in the traditional set-up where citizens took part in the discussions whatever their social rank in the political hierarchy. Consensus had to be sought. The remark, "People talked and talked, but they agreed," summarizes the ideal. The consensus so reached became binding as transgression of it was taboo. The author then explains how much of this ideal has been lost largely due to transplanting Western social and political models and practices, particularly the western style political parties which come to Africa with all their inherent problems.
In the area of justice, Wamala argues that was the concern of all citizens. Because of this, any wrong doing was always promptly punished. Justice in the modern period has become legalistic and over institutionalized, with a marked prevalence of lawyers, law courts, police--all law enforcement agencies working at a distance. When present cases of corruption, mob-justice, violence, etc. have to be explained, they will be explained against the background of new and often strange institutions whose employment of "experts" has alienated the masses.
Finally, the break away from the traditional social and political philosophy has an explanation in the effects of colonialism and neocolonialism, in the turbulent economic situation, and in the sheer demands of emerging nationalism.
S.A. Mwanahewa's paper, "African Logical Heritage and Contemporary Life: The Cogency in `Kinyankore Orature', Focusing on Proverbs," analyses the specific philosophical aspect of logic in the cultural heritage of the Banyankore, a people of Uganda. Logic is a branch of philosophy that is fundamental not only to philosophy, but to other disciplines as well; in fact several universities consider logic as a necessary component of all sciences. In African life and centers of learning, logic is equally fundamental, drawing its raison d'être from within African culture. S.A. Mwanahewa shows that the roots of logic within an African context are to be found within its cultural heritage; from these roots, the lymph of African logic can pass to vitalize the thought of the rest of humanity.
The paper elaborates on the complementary relation between logic and orature (the skills of listening and speaking) in the sense that not only do both disciplines share methodological characteristics, further, orature also has the capacity to improve the approach of logic as a discipline.
The author then shows how orature portrays the cultural heritage not only pragmatically but also logically. Moreover evidence is brought to prove that while logic uses premises and a conclusion in order to establish the cogency of an argument, an illiterate cultural community obtains the same purpose by using other oral expressions. The two approaches serve the same end and could actually be developed to enrich each other. Hence, there emerges the need to blend logic and orature emerges. This implies the urgent need to attend to the African cultural heritage which is in the process of vanishing with the departure of illiterate elders.
The discussion in the paper is supported by one specific aspect of orature, namely the Kinyankore proverbial expressions. Such expressions guarantee, among others the authenticity of the language and propositions being logically analyzed. Proverbial expressions are used to show that logic can use the scientific and the artistic approaches to establish the cogency in arguments. The ensuing suggestion is that logic should blend its exclusive "scientific" approach and consider also the artistic contribution in its methodology.
Finally, the relation between orature and logic can support the interaction between illiterate and literate communities in the world at the fundamental level of verbal expression and patterns of thought, thus serving the purpose of unity and understanding among humans. This is a challenge to logicians in particular.
J.K. Kigongo considers "The Concepts of Individuality and Social Cohesion: A Perversion of Two African Cultural Realities." Among the different aspects of human life, political, economic and social, there is a false attempt in contemporary Africa to reclaim some fundamental realities of traditional African thought which have a positive influence so as to allow continuity in the development.
The imposition of colonial rule, particularly its educational aspect, and the emergence of the neo-colonial state, broke Africa, though not totally, from a fundamental reality of social cohesion imbedded in tribal societies and built essentially upon respect for individual human freedom.
In modern Africa, on the other hand, there is a claim among political guardians to build a cohesive harmonious society at the national level. The building is based, however, on measures that are inherently coercive, thus negating human freedom. The claim is mere political propaganda, rather than a real intention; this is a corruption of the thought in traditional society.
This manipulation, however, has provoked a crisis between the state and the subject (the ruled), the latter willing restoration of the status quo of the traditional society where social cohesion was voluntary or based on the will of individuals, rather than upon the will of the state.
The paper intends to explain and analyze the revolutionary process and to show the perversion of the two realities, the process involving the traditional society, the colonial stage. Due to this perversion there is lack of continuity.
P. Kaboha's study of "African Metaphysical Heritage and Contemporary Life - A Study of African Contribution to Contemporary Life" considers the role of metaphysical concepts in traditional African life, specifically the fundamental one of integration. The author explains how traditional society in Africa does not consciously separate the various aspects of life and social behavior into compartments or treat them as possible areas of study or contemplation. All areas of life are seen and treated as parts of an integrated whole which also includes nature. Traditionally, the person has an integrated relationship with society and nature through both experiential and intellectual knowledge by which the person is fully integrated with life and with his own identity. This life experience of one generation is added to that of the preceding generations and handed down as "social wisdom."
In considering whether this integration with nature and the metaphysical intuition arising from it, is of any value to modern man, the paper recalls the artificial environment in which modern man lives, and his artificial relation to it; these create the premises of disaster. Such disastrous premises can already be seen, for instance, in genetic engineering and in the threats to the ecology. Modern man's over-eagerness to dominate has led him into a confused condition of slavery to the very goods he has manufactured, including intellectual goods. The relation of man to himself, to society and to nature is thus disintegrated.
Philosophers have tried to revive the flagging spirit of man against this onslaught, but human cupidity has had the best, penetrating philosophy as well. Metaphysics and ethics went out of fashion in most European and American universities; in many cases, metaphysics and ethics not only were not philosophy but they were palpable nonsense. Philosophy became a "Science" of language.
In African terms, this is the crisis of the person who has broken away from his roots and is living a new life supported by artificial systems in a cultural and metaphysical vacuum. What African philosophy suggests to the Western-oriented person is some humility by which to seek himself again and find his place in a integrated ecology of body, mind and spirit. Traditionally, the African does not seek to control or to manipulate nature by establishing his power over it; rather he seeks his best to integrate with it. This is not a condemnation of science, but a statement that development must be integrated; which is like saying that, if man takes a leap technologically, he must take a similar leap morally and spiritually; lest he pursue his own destruction. Modern man must then stop to reconsider why he prefers byproducts to life's essentials.
A.T. Dalfovo's paper on "Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Life, The Moral Continuum" begins from the fact of national heterogeneity and from the experience of colonial coercion. Colonial coercion has marred the nation at its beginning, preventing the formation and development of a national moral consensus. The moral values in national life have been fundamentally those ensuing from traditional societies.
Moral values in the life of an individual or a society may be challenged by some exceptional condition or crisis. Such a crisis needs to be perceived in order to provoke the envisaged reassessment of morality, for without an awareness of the crisis there can be no reaction to it. In Ugandan history a typical instance of such critical experience was colonialism; but the amount of public awareness of the moral crisis provoked by it is not easy to establish; public awareness seems to have been drawn to the political rather than to the moral crisis. There is a need to assess the moral crisis of colonialism.
The moral codes of traditional societies show considerable uniformity in their prescriptive variety. For this uniformity to become consensus, awareness and appropriation are needed. Uniformity in fact indicates the possibility of consensus, but consensus has to be acquired. A foundation of this uniformity appears to lie in the concept of a common humanity; an awareness of this could provide consensus and ultimately the moral continuum from the cultural heritage to contemporary life.
The history of Uganda testifies to the existence of a social heterogeneity coercively impinged upon by a tendency to homogeneity. The pervasiveness of this coercion has not yet been fully realized or assessed; this could be one of the reasons for its persistence to the present.
If the challenge of the moral crisis is met in pluralism and by reference to a common humanity vis-a-vis national characteristics and culture, then contemporary life will link to the cultural heritage through the continuum of a moral consensus.
E.K.M. Beyaraaza considers "Cultural Differences and Value Clashes in African Cities." Though his considerations bear on the African city in general, the initial experience of the author refers to the city in Uganda. Urban centers pose one of the strongest challenges to contemporary life in Africa, particularly because of the cultural differences they bring so close together and hence of the value clashes they precipitate. The city both influences and is influenced by the rural areas where urban dwellers sink their roots. Thus, the city crowns a complex set of dichotomies experienced by the African; this induces the fundamental question of identity: "What sort of people are we as individuals?" (A.L. Bukenya).
The paper explains the problematic role of colonialism in the history of the African city. The author then poses the crucial question concerning what philosophy can contribute in solving the cultural dichotomy synthesized in urban centers. Inspired by the approach of, among others, Chinua Achebe and Kwasi Wiredu, the author avoids the either-or solution, namely total acceptance of one side and total rejection of the other. Instead, the author opts for "selecting values and cultural practices from both sides basing ourselves on the worth of what we select." Philosophy plays a fundamental role in this selection. "What philosophy can do for Africans as regards the problems raised in this paper is to help them understand basic issues and resolve their differences, among other problems, through vigorous thinking or reflection." This philosophic exercise concerns all the people, as "any mentally healthy person is capable of philosophizing"; also the contribution of professional philosophers goes to the people, for what they write is not limited to philosophers, but is read in all directions and at various levels of understanding, and thus influences the people.
The African mind has always been at work even under the most trying conditions of slavery and struggle. Today such a situations of coercion would appear to be less conditioning, which motivates a more robust philosophical activity. This note on freedom leads to the conclusion that philosophy needs to be supplemented by a committed leadership for healthy social interaction, within which to solve cultural differences and value clashes.
THE ISSUES
The issues highlighted by the papers are many; attempting to summarize them here probably would lead to an oversimplification resulting in a loss of accuracy. What can be attempted instead is to relate them to what appears to be a common denominator. This is going to lead to some metaphysical considerations, which are not intended to be the only perspective from which these papers and their issues may be reviewed. In fact, each paper has its philosophical and methodological identity; only one of them is identified as metaphysical in its approach. The attempt here is simply to correlate the various issues highlighted by the papers in a comprehensive view, which, in philosophical terms, generally is described as metaphysical.
The theme: cultural heritage and contemporary life prompts the papers to recall a series of crucial dichotomies from general ones like past and present, to specific ones such as urban and rural. Each paper comes to grips with several of them. These dichotomies seem actually to constitute the main challenge in each paper, leading in one way or another to the fundamental metaphysical dualism of being and becoming, of permanence and change.
Past heritage and present life impels one to look back for permanence and stability, and to look forward for change and development. Each paper undertakes its analysis from a different philosophical perspective, but all papers converge more or less explicitly on metaphysical considerations referring to being and becoming, permanence and change.
In "ordinary" circumstances, the relation of permanence and change generally is perceived only by minds that are critically alert; but in the present "extraordinary" conditions of change almost any observer recognizes the lopsided relation of permanence and change. E.K.M. Beyaraaza's appraisal of the people's philosophy is here to the point. Today everybody is under the impression that everything is always changing. Elders in particular find this situation confusing because the tempo of "outer" change does not allow the adaptation of one's "inner" self. It seems that one's mental categories, value judgements, and world vision are ever behind the "outer" context in which one lives: the concept lags behind the experience. Consequently, one with no "inner" leadership and no clear sense of purpose obviously is bewildered and confused.
Hence, the metaphysical issue of being and becoming does not refer only to the "outer" reality, but it also bears on one's "inner" aspect in both one's individual and social dimensions. One wants to be oneself, yet one wants to change; one wants stability, and also development; one wants to be identified with both aspects, which at the same time appear contrasting.
The problem ultimately is one of identity with metaphysical roots. The dual challenge of being and becoming, permanence and change surfaces most critically in any problem of identity, whether personal or communal. African writers have elaborated on it quite extensively. "The sense of being `double', `a split personality', of being `half', is probably felt by most Africans, for they are a people of `two cultures', `two morals', `two value systems', and `two worlds'."9 This (present) split is between a (past) memory of tradition and a (future) perspective of modernity; between adhesion to "traditional" stability and opening to "modern" change; between being (past-present) and becoming (present-future).
Personal identity "in philosophy is the unity of the person projected in time and, therefore, the persisting of the person itself, with unmistakable characteristics, in the vicissitudes of experience."10 Within this understanding, the person constitutes a unity that lasts in time, a being that continues as such in his temporal becoming. This description does not allude to the social aspect of identity, even though this may be perceived implicitly. The contemporary problem of personal identity in Uganda, as anywhere else, demands explicit attention to the social or communal identity, because the problem of identity seems to be above all in the person-group relation.11 Personal identity cannot be solved without reference to a specific group; one needs to know which group one belongs to in order to know who he is. "Identity is lasting inner sameness and continuity, as well as a lasting participation in certain specific group character traits; it therefore included a reciprocal relation between the core of the individual and membership of a group."12
J.K. Kigongo's paper offers a clear contribution to the relation between individual and society in the African context, against any perversion that may arise either from outside as typified by colonialism, or from inside as exemplified by political manipulation.
Personal identity demands that the dichotomy past-present merge into one expression of individual and social life. The need for this merger is elaborated by all papers; they try to establish and to analyze the continuum in the life of the community and of the individual, proposing ways by which the past and the present can be merged rather than merely combined. This continuity is variously considered by the papers: for p. Kaboha it is to be found in metaphysical integration, for E. Wamala in political blending, for J.K. Kigongo in genuine heritage, for A.T. Dalfovo in the ethical continuum, for Zubairi bin Nasseem in epistemological ecumenism, for E.K.M. Beyaraaza in a selective axiology, for S.A. Mwanahewa in a logical relation.
The role of metaphysics in all this needs to be assessed against the two attitudes to metaphysics present in Uganda as in other societies. One attitude ensues from the contemporary trend, particularly evident in British philosophy, by which metaphysics is irrelevant. In Uganda, this attitude seems to be found rather in those whose philosophical interests are secondary to their professional activity. The other attitude derives from the Ugandan heritage, within which there are no difficulties in dealing with the transcendent aspect of metaphysics and in addressing oneself to the ultimate foundation of reality. This attitude is generally in those Ugandans whose primary field of interest is philosophy. P. Kaboha's paper stresses this latter attitude, elaborating on the African world-view which postulates an integrated vision of reality. Several other thinkers have expanded on this metaphysical foundation of African philosophy. Pobee, for instance, lists three principles that govern the African vision of the world: the unity between the visible and the invisible worlds; the essentially harmonic relation with others; the existence of hidden forces, and the consciousness of one's own limits before them.13 For the African, "all opposites form one living, unitary and inseparable reality."14 He does not eliminate contrasting elements in his search for unity, but views them in harmony.
This vision allows all issues envisaged by the papers to be duly considered, without prejudice or favor; this comprehensive possibility is particularly important when one is faced with a variety of contrasting dualisms that seem to be tearing apart every aspect of existence, splitting the very identity of the person. The integrated vision from African metaphysics allows the person and the community to build a cohesive entity where freedom and coercion, unity and diversity, past and present, and every other dichotomous aspect is duly considered and harmoniously placed vis-a-vis the rest of reality. Nation building would thus result in a society that is integrated in its logical, epistemological, axiological, and political aspects from its metaphysical foundations to its ethical expressions, as the papers in this collection emphasize. S.A. Mwanahewa adds that considerations of reason and logic would actually allow this integration to extend to the entire globe.
A major difficulty in this task devolves from the complexity of the field in which it needs to be fulfilled. As all papers have explained, the present situation of Uganda draws not only from her inner cultural heritage, but also from outer international influences. These inner and outer components of contemporary life are intermingled in some more or less successful and accepted synthesis. This predicament affects philosophy as well and in assessing it one needs to appraise all sides with fairness; but the point being made here is to focus on the problematic aspect of outer influences vis-a-vis philosophical trends from the inner heritage. In this connection, the outer component in the philosophical field in Uganda manifests the ascendancy of positivism, the influence of the analytic approach, the mystification of scientific methodology, the material concept of development, the secondary importance of humanities, and a relativism in ethics. With philosophy as unimportant and metaphysics as irrelevant, and with morality as privatized and epistemology as relative, the solution to the present problems is along a reductionist and fragmented line.
On the other hand, and as mentioned above, the inner component of philosophy, drawing from the heritage of the nation contributes a vision that accepts the whole spectrum of philosophy from metaphysics to ethics. It privileges harmony rather than contrasts, and what integrates rather than what excludes. The strong humanitarian aspect of African philosophy encourages a central position for the person, and thus a primary role for ethics. The African philosopher seeks an authentic expression of his thought from the inner component of his reality; at the same time he cannot avoid the challenge of outer influences. With regard to the Ugandan context in particular, one may notice how the endurance of the country's problems that appear to defy solutions challenges an increasing number of intellectuals to consider issues from a comprehensive and deeper point of view, drawing from their own heritage. This latent search for philosophical answers that could lead, in E. Wamala's projection, to a new culture resulting from a blend of old and new.
Notwithstanding the above intricate philosophical field, specifically its outer component, philosophers in Uganda are not on a guided tour of issues and arguments, either from within or from without. The papers in this collection are a humble but clear testimony to the autonomy of thought their authors pursue. The issues that characterize African philosophy are freely discussed within an independent intellectual framework indicating how philosophical arguments must lead to what is logically necessary, and not to what may be in any other way expedient. To some readers, these papers may recall ancient Greek philosophy, when the simplicity of truth disturbed the complexity of appearance, and when the arguments of reason confronted the interests of ignorance. African philosophy continues, in Zubairi bin Nasseem's words, between the "flux of ontological dialectics" and the "demand for axiological peace."
Makere University
Kampala, Uganda
1. From the Latin Pro Futuro Aedificamus that the University originally used.
2. Council for Research in Values and Philosophy (RVP), the Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064, USA.
3. A.J. Smet, (ed.), Philosophie Africaine, Textes Choisis II, (Kinshasa: Presses Universitaires du Zaire, Kinshasa, 1975), p. 411.
4. P.D. Wiebe, and C.P. Dodge, Beyond Crisis, Development Issues in Uganda, (Kampala: MISR, Makerere University, 1987.
5. C.P. Dodge, and M. Raundalen, (eds.), War, Violence and Children in Uganda (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, Oslo, 1987.
6. S.R. Karugire, The Roots of Instability in Uganda (Kampala: The New Vision Printing and Publishing Corporation, 1988).
7. H.R. Hansen, and M. Twaddle, (eds.), Uganda Now, Between Decay and Development, (Nairobi, Heinemann, 1988).
8. K. Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Resolution in Uganda. (International Peace Research Institute, Oslo, in association with James Currey (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989).
9. C.M. Mwikamba, "A Search for an African Identity?", First International Regional Conference, Mombasa, 23-27 May 1988, p. 1. The `falling apart' in this quotation echoes Nigerian Chinua Achebe's book, Things Fall Apart, published in 1958.
10. Enciclopedia Filosofica, (Gallarate: Edipem 1979), s.v. "Identita Personale" (by M.L. Falorni).
11. "Erikson regards the search for identity as the major problem of the contemporary west. The majority of patients who come for psychoanalytic treatment are sick in a way unknown to the founders of psycho-analysis. . . . Patients of the early analysis were men who had no fundamental doubts about their proper place in society. . . . They belonged to coherent groups which endorsed their inner convictions and expectations." F.B. Welbourn, Religion and Politics in Uganda, (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1985), p. 49.
12. B. Stoeckle, Concise Dictionary of Christian Ethics, (London: Burns and Oates, 1979), s.v. "Identity" by L. Fleisher, p. 138.
13. J.S. Pobee, Towards an African Theology, (Nashville: Abingdom, 197)9, pp. 43-45.
14. E.A. Ruch and K.C. Anyanwu, African Philosophy, (Roma: Officium Libri Catholici, 1984), p. 87.