INTRODUCTION*

As in all cultures within Ghana, the proverbs of the Ga and Dangme function somewhat like moral codes, conventional wisdom and explicit rules of conduct; proverbs both describe and prescribe. They state the experiences, moral intuitions and guidelines for living that people generally have found to be noteworthy and helpful. At the same time, they contain the wisdom of the sages in the form of prescriptions and counsel for a successful life. We shall study only a small number of representative proverbs. We intend (i) to distill what Ga and Dangme proverbs actually say about the use of old and new things, about maintaining the status quo, and about accepting change; and (ii) to indicate what resources their proverbs provide — as repositories of the collective wisdom of the people — for forming attitudes towards change and modernization. Thus we shall be stating both what is the case regarding people’s attitudes towards change and what ought to be or what they regard as the correct attitudes. The approach adopted here is that of an exposition rather than a critical analysis of the selected proverbs. We shall consider the literal or primary meaning of the proverbs (in English) as well as its deeper meaning and the moral lesson or principle enunciated by their application in a particular circumstance.

There is a commonplace view that in societies with relatively more rural populations than urban and city dwellers there is a lower level of tolerance of modernization and that urban and city dwellers accept modernization more easily. Sometimes attitudes to change are intimately linked with religious beliefs. One of the variety of effects that religion can have on adherents is to make them conservative. The more religious a people are, the more conservative they may tend to be and consequently the less favorable may be their attitude towards change, especially towards ‘modernity’. This is because modernity is seen — not entirely without justification — as an iconoclastic and corrupting intrusion upon well-established, age-old values, while it fosters values and practices that tend to incite upheavals and disequilibrium in society.

Hountonji’s contention cannot be dismissed wholesale. Nevertheless there exists the equally obvious truism that a consensus or dominant view prevails even in a vast culture where people express diverse views at every opportunity. So one can legitimately refer to dominant views of the Ga and Dangme towards modernization and change without necessarily being guilty of the ‘cultural unanism’ illusion.

Much of the idiomatic language and reflective thought of Africans is expressed in proverbs. In many ways, African traditional proverbs are like those of the people of other cultures. Although there exist long proverbs — which seem more like short stories or poems — the overwhelming majority of African proverbs are short, pithy statements that contain ancient wisdom and experience.

African proverbs usually have two meanings: the literal or primary meaning and the deeper or implicit meaning. The implicit or normative meaning of African proverbs is not always apparent. This is precisely why they are called proverbs. For instance, the Ghanaian Akan, Dangme and Ga expressions for ‘to cite a proverb,’ bu abë, means ‘to bend,’ ‘curve,’ or ‘to twist words,’ to make them complicated (Yankah 1986). Similarly, the Lugbara (Uganda) term that is used to designate proverbs, e’yo obeza, literally means ‘mixed words,’ ‘twisted speech’ or ‘indirect talk’ (Dalfovo 1995). The meaning of a proverb is not fixed and so it can be modified. The user is free to reconstruct a proverb in order to make it appropriate for the particular context in which it is being used. To modify a proverb, one may delete, paraphrase, elaborate or transfer elements in it (Yankah 1986). The hearer must be clever to interpret and grasp the meaning of a proverb.

Another important feature of African proverbs is that for a proverb to be appropriate when cited, the situation depicted in the primary meaning, as well as its deeper meaning, must match that of the context and situation to which it is being applied. Take for instance the Bassa proverb: "An elder knows where to locate a crab’s heart." The proverb is pointing to difficult and complex problems whose solution can barely be imagined. They are like a crab’s heart, which can hardly be located. Yet in both cases an elder has the solution: from his store of knowledge and experience he can locate a crab’s heart. And from his experience and wisdom coupled with patience and careful scrutiny, he can get to the root of a complex problem and offer solutions. This characteristic of the African proverb and its application calls for a technique that comes with long periods of training and practice, whether formal or informal. Similarly, to understand a proverb correctly is also a task calling for discernment; for those who hear the proverbs do not always understand them. This is because the truths and advice expressed in the proverbs are always stated in figures of speech, metaphors and images, rather than in plain common language. Sometimes things that are alike or antithetical are compared or contrasted. One needs to reason and use one’s imagination in order to understand a proverb’s intended meaning (Dzobo 1972).

In Africa, proverbs are not usually ascribed to any particular individual, but rather to the ancestors collectively, the wise men and women of old. In most cases it is not known who composed a particular proverb. But whether or not the source is known, all proverbs are credited to the elders of old, even if a particular composer is still alive. In many African societies, when a proverb is cited, it is preceded with a statement like, "So said the elders. . . ." This is a way of according authority to proverbs. It is also a way of saying that all the people own the proverbs (Dzobo 1975); and that they contain experience, wisdom and valid counsel that is acknowledged by all. Thus, the collective thought, beliefs and values of an African people can be discerned from their proverbs.

There are thousands, perhaps millions, of African proverbs. New ones are still being composed and old ones are adapted or given new meanings to suit new situations. Anyone who is ingenious — that is, anyone who is creative, observant and has the ability to reflect and deduce a moral lesson from common happenings — can compose a proverb (Dzobo 1975).

African proverbs contain observations gathered from common everyday events and experiences concerning the nature, life and behavior of human beings as well as those of animals, birds, plants and other natural objects, even supernatural objects and beings. Some of the proverbial sayings are statements of historical fact about the people, while others contain information about their culture. For instance, the Ewe proverb, "When Nötsie chief sends you to war, you yourself have to find a way of hiding from your enemies," tells of events in their history some 600 years ago when many Ewes lost their lives in wars that they fought for the chief of Nötsie, an ancient walled city situated in present-day Togo (Dzobo 1975). A great number of proverbs express philosophical thoughts, religious beliefs and values. The Akan proverbial saying that "God pounds fufu for the one-handed person" is a theological statement of the Akan’s perspective about God’s provision, loving kindness and gracious dealings with humankind. Other proverbs reflect the social structure of traditional African societies. For example, there are proverbs that suggest how to deal with elders, children, a spouse and so on; and there are some that indicate the position and role of various members of the society. The Ga proverb: "When a woman rears a goat, it is a man who slaughters it," shows the position and role of the woman in Ga traditional society as a nurturing subordinate, but indispensable companion and partner of the man. Similarly, the Dangme proverb, "The stream-side drinking gourd does not make one die of thirst" (i.e. it saves one from dying of thirst), shows the importance of women in the created order; for it means that a man who has a wife at home will not die of hunger. At a deeper level, it means that a man finds his complement and his fulfillment in woman, his wife.

A close look at African traditional proverbial sayings shows clearly that the main concerns expressed in the proverbs relate to every aspect of human life. The ultimate purpose of the proverbs is to teach wisdom and moral lessons. Thus they contain, and are used to convey, moral lessons and advice on how to live a good and prosperous life. The proverbs touch on all conditions of life: wealth and poverty, health and sickness, joy and sorrow; occupations that include farming, hunting, fishing, building, trading and other kinds of activity like healing, cooking, walking, sleeping, marrying, childbearing, child-rearing. There are proverbs that concern all manner of people: kings and citizens, nobles and slaves, women and men, adults and children, apprentices and master craftsmen.

African proverbs contain observations and good counsel against undesirable vices like anger, backbiting, greed, ingratitude, laziness, lying, pride, procrastination, selfishness, stealing and so forth. The Ugandan proverb, "Anger killed a mother cow," warns against anger, while the South African proverb, "Horns which are put on do not stick properly," condemns hypocrisy and arrogance. Many other proverbs also praise and advise people to cultivate virtues that promote progress and ensure wellbeing: circumspection, co-operation, gratitude, humility, patience, perseverance, prudence, respect and unity. Two Igbo proverbs: "The palm wine tapper does not say everything he sees from the top of the palm tree," and, "If the mouth says the head should be beheaded, when it is beheaded, the mouth follows it," both teach prudence and the need to avoid speaking out carelessly, and to avoid saying everything one sees or knows.

In traditional African society, one can hardly hear anyone speak a few sentences without citing a proverb. For the initiated, the citing of proverbs comes naturally, without any conscious or special effort. This is as true during ordinary conversation as during formal and solemn discourse. However, proverbs tend to be more purposely cited during serious or formal discourse, such as during proceedings of the council of elders, a chief’s court, an arbitration, family meetings or during exhortations on how to live a morally good life.

A cursory examination may suggest that some proverbs contradict others. For example some proverbs counsel self-reliance while others counsel community effort. The truth is that, in its own context and particular situation, each may be apt. For in real life situations there are paradoxes and apparent contradictions. For instance in certain situations the best thing to do is to be silent, while in others speaking out is the wise thing to do. Thus, although the counsels of silence and of speaking out may appear to conflict when juxtaposed, in their appropriate distinct contexts each is straightforward. It is no wonder, then, that since proverbs relate to real life situations, they sometimes seem to contradict each other; but these contradictions are only apparent and not substantive. This fact underscores the need to use proverbs in the right context and appropriate situation.

It is also important to note that one proverb can have several meanings and can, therefore, be applied to different situations. For instance, the Ga proverb, "If you want to send a message to God, tell it to the wind," can be used in different situations. It teaches that God is everywhere. It also teaches the correct Ga procedure when you want to see the chief (you must first see the linguist). And it advises that when you have a bothersome matter about which you cannot speak out, you have to tell it to those who can pass it on.

On the other hand, in some cases many different proverbs teach the same moral lesson and can thus be used for emphasis. The Gas say: "A kitchen that leaks (or a shed in ruins) is better than a thicket." The Ewe have a proverb that says that: "Even a good-for-nothing fellow can carry a pot of palm wine to the funeral." The Dangme say: "Mud-water also can be used to quench fire." All these proverbs teach the same moral lesson, namely, that every person is of some use; therefore everyone should be given due regard and people should have a sense of their own worth and be contented with their role.

African proverbs can be used for several scholarly purposes. They can be used for the linguistic analysis of a particular language or dialect. Historical information as well as the thought, customs, beliefs and values of a society can be obtained through their proverbs. Besides, African proverbs are a literary device used to embellish speech. This is because many of the idioms of an African language are embedded in its proverbs. As it were, African proverbs are used as sweeteners to communicate effectively. As the Ga writer, Nee-Adjabeng Ankra put it (1966): speaking without citing proverbs is like eating soup that has no salt in it. Proverbs are cited to confirm, reinforce or modify a statement; to heighten and attract attention to a point or message; or simply to summarize a speech. Sometimes, too, they are used to communicate a fact or opinion that might be impolite or even offensive to state in direct speech or in plain language. They are also used to make people appreciate speech or to facilitate understanding and to generate conviction. As one Yoruba observation has it: "A proverb is the horse which can carry one swiftly to the discovery of ideas." Although all these varied uses are significant, they are in fact all means to a common end. The ultimate purpose of proverbs is to impart wisdom, to teach moral values and good social conduct, to warn against foolishness, to influence people’s choices and to help them succeed in life.

The statements made in the proverbs reflect true everyday occurrences, but as noted above, they usually have two meanings — literal or primary meaning, in contrast with the deeper or implicit meaning. Take, for example, the Ga proverb: "Kë onyië shuö sëë lë owuuu bö." (If you follow in the trail of an elephant, you do not get smeared with the dew.) The statement is literally true. The elephant is a very big animal, and as it goes through the forest it steps on the grass and destroys the shrubs, clearing a path behind and getting smeared with dew. Therefore, if you follow in its trail, you stand less risk of getting smeared with the dew, since the elephant has already cleared it off the grass and shrubs. And the proverb has a real or deeper meaning: if you associate with an important personality, say a rich, knowledgeable or powerful person, you will not lack. It can also be applied to mean that if you believe and trust in God, you will not be disappointed but will succeed.

This feature of proverbs having both a literal and a deeper meaning sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish proverbial discourse from sayings, idioms, riddles and puzzles. In particular, there is no cut and dried demarcation between proverbs and sayings. All may have hidden meanings that are difficult to discern. Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish one genre from the other. A key difference between them lies in how they are typically used. Riddles and puzzles are usually cited for fun and entertainment, but proverbs are cited in serious discourse. Another contrast is that, among the Dangme and Ga, words or sounds used in some puzzles are onomatopoeic; that is to say, they sound like or describe the thing talked about in the puzzle. Idioms are usually used in public when it is impolite or indecent to say something in plain words; in such cases similes or idioms (euphemisms) are used to make the topic respectable. For example, it is incorrect to ever label someone a ‘thief’ but you may say (literally in Ga) that ‘his hands pick things.’

Perhaps the most important difference between proverbs and these other forms of speech is that every proverb contains some wisdom and good advice. Take for instance the proverb: "The one who is clothed in cotton wool does not hover over a flame." This has to do with temptation and discretion; it warns against foolishly exposing oneself to things that will ruin one. As in other traditional African societies, the Ga and Dangme use proverbs to embellish speech, to emphasize or summarize a point, or to make it succinct. But always the ultimate purpose of composing or citing proverbs is to counsel people about how to live good and successful lives.

With this background, we shall now look at thirty Ga and Dangme proverbs and sayings that give wise counsel regarding change and modernization.

Ga and Dangme proverbs and sayings show preference for the old and proven. It would not take long for an observer of ancient or modern Ga and Dangme society to discover that Gas and Dangmes are lovers of tradition. They have great respect for the age and the wisdom of the elders; some of this wisdom is preserved in their proverbs and sayings. Some of the wise sayings and proverbs explicitly stress a preference for what is old and proven. They contain counsel against abandoning old ways and extol the virtues of continuity. They exhort people to preserve their culture — the customs, beliefs and practices, values, institutions, technologies and all that goes into making people who they are. The proverbs caution against embracing just any new thing that comes along. Witness the following:

The Ga say:

[The ancient twist of a rope is the one on which to pattern yours.

This proverb teaches that the ways of the old must always be followed by later generations, if they are to experience success and the good life. The sages of old were convinced that the old ways are better than modern ones — as this Dangme proverb puts it:

[An old broom sweeps better than a new broom.]

Not only does this particular proverb extol the old broom; it compares it with the new, grades the old one higher and even discourages use of the new broom. Like many proverbs its message is general; it may be interpreted as anti-modernist and conservative. For example, it is better to continue with one’s spouse no matter the problems, than to look for another in the hope of finding a better one; such a hope may turn out to be an illusion.

Dangme proverb that is more commonly used to express order of precedence in society but which is also used to show the priority of place for ancient things over the relatively new and modern. It says:

[There had been people of old before old people were born.]

Just as there were already elders before those who are now old were born, so too there were equally good tools and ways of doing things before new tools or new methods of doing things were fashioned. Therefore, the new and modern are not necessarily superior to the old; for the old have proven their worth.

There are similar proverbs that have been used to defend or to justify the status quo. For example, the following two Ga proverbs:

[Before Lañma (i.e. a stony hilly area on the western boundary of Ga land) was cultivated, the monkeys that lived there had food to eat.]

[Before sugar was invented we ate wonder sweet berries.]

One of the several meanings of these two proverbs is: we can do without the so-called improvements of modernization. We can manage without modern innovations and not be any worse for it, just as we have done all along. All the foregoing proverbs express the Ga and Dangme people’s respect and definite preference that they have for old-fashioned, reliable things and time-proven ways.

Lovers of the old ways can be so convinced of their surpassing excellence that they may do more than idolize ancient things; they may view them as irreplaceable. They may imbue old things with the qualities of invincibility and survival over whatever is new, since the latter is destined to disappear soon from the scene. For example the Dangme proverb:

[Before the chewing-sponge plant came (or sprouted), the anthill was.]

Similarly, the Ga say:

[I am Anthill the immovable, the irreplaceable. I was there before the shrub kanya came into being.]

These two proverbs have the same meaning. At the primary level, they teach that the anthill is superior to the shrubs that grow on it because the shrubs are dependent upon the anthill. The anthill will remain when the chewing-sponge plant or kanya is weeded or withers. At the deeper level, these proverbs mean that before the world came into being, God existed. When the world passes away and is no more, God will still be. But they are not only cited to teach God’s eternity. They are also used on occasions when one wants to say that some new teaching or ideology or party that is currently in vogue may only be a nine-day wonder, leaving the old to survive it; or that a new person in authority throwing his weight about will not last in that position. Thus, the two proverbs are used to express priority, seniority, superiority and prevalence of the old over the new and incoming — even though the new and modern may give the impression of being more civilized or refined, and therefore superior. It is against the background of such teachings and lessons of experience that the elders caution against trying just anything or embracing every new fashion. As Dangme wisdom has it:

[Do not follow or embrace just any (new) thing or fashion.]

With some justification, one may be tempted to conclude from the foregoing that the Ga and Dangme have an unambiguously rejecting mindset against change and modernization. But such a conclusion would be too hasty. For there are other proverbs and wise sayings that display an open and positive attitude towards novelty, even if it is also a critically reserved and cautious attitude. In fact the people are not typically narrow-minded and rigid in their views and ways. On the contrary, they are typically broad-minded, objective and circumspect. They generally appreciate that there are two sides to an issue, and that to do justice one must weigh the merits and demerits of both sides. This predilection for balance and avoidance of bias is witnessed by the Ga proverb:

[When you have said what there is in favor of heaven, you must also say what there is in favor of earth.]

In other words, you must always weigh all sides of an issue carefully before you can arrive at a good judgment or just decision. The status quo may not always be the best. There may be some good in an alternative; a change may turn out to be an improvement; so it is worth finding out.

Despite the fact that change is sometimes viewed with caution, suspicion and even hostility, it cannot be denied that the Ga and Dangme people seem always to be on the lookout for something new. They welcome novelty and the unfamiliar and display a joyous acceptance of that which is new. This love for novelty and for anything exotic is reflected in the Dangme proverb:

[There is no lack of fine things in Europe (the whiteman’s land).]

Here a ‘fine’ thing implies something that is both of high quality and pleasingly different from what is familiar. The saying means that a person should be open-minded and accepting of change; for something good may come out of it. This preparedness to assimilate something new into things that are already familiar indicates both a dislike for stagnation and a yearning for change.

There is an advantage in change that has to do not so much with the introduction of new things as valuable in themselves, but rather with the avoidance of stagnation. Incessant delays and perpetually doing things by rote lead to retrogression and contempt. These attitudes are expressed in various proverbs. For example, from the Dangme:

[If water keeps too long in a gourd (or bottle), it goes bad.]

And in Ga:

[If a bird perches on a tree for too long, it is asking for a stone, (i.e. for trouble).]

Because familiarity breeds contempt, frequent change is advantageous in some situations.

Another reason change is desirable is that it is natural. No one can successfully stifle or suppress it.

The Ga proverb:

[No one puts a stone (a weight) on a person],

This is not merely an observation of the biological fact that no physical pressure bearing down can prevent a person from growing taller. It is also an admonition against trying to resist change, especially change in the form of human development and progress. The proverb is usually cited in contexts where there is some resistance or controversy concerning a change in someone’s attitude, life style, circumstances or fortune — in order to press the point that the change should be tolerated or even encouraged because it is deserving. A person cannot remain the same throughout life, but must grow and progress.

Accumulated trial and error have taught the Ga and Dangme people that new situations demand new responses, and that one cannot always use old solutions to solve new problems effectively; hence there is need for change. The conviction that there is wisdom in abandoning obsolete measures when dealing with contemporary problems is expressed in the following proverbs:

(14) Ga: Ajötö tsofa tsaaa kanto.

[The cure for yaws will never cure rickets.]

[You do not prepare soup with rancid palmnuts.]

[Each calabash has its own fitting lid.]

[You do not tie a thread around an elephant to pull it.]

From these, people may learn that in order to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness, they must use the appropriate tools and measures, since every tool, cure or measure is suited only for certain things and not others. Inappropriateness and obsolescence pertain not only to the efficacy of some tool or measure to yield a desired effect; time and vibrancy are also factors. What was once appropriate and effective may no longer be so and must give way to the new. Thus the Ga saying,

(18) Blema bë döñ.

[Ancient times are past and gone; the old order has changed].

This is not merely an assertion about an historical state of the world. It is a demand for vitality, a call for change.

Owing to the uncertainty of what may come from new things and the familiar experience of mixed blessings that ensue from new things, the Ga and Dangme are rather cautious about embracing certain types of change. In spite of this caution, they have an optimistic philosophy of life by which they rise above ambivalence and trepidation. The Dangme say,

[It is by trying — or by adopting the attitude of ‘let’s try and see’ — that one can reach Nugo (Ningo)—one of the Dangme coastal towns far from most of the other towns.]

In the olden days when travel was by foot, it took some effort to go to Nugo. But those who tried eventually got there, hence the saying — Aka’yë ji Nugo yam’ — which has now become proverbial wisdom that is used to counsel perseverance in all things. There is a similar Ga saying:

[It is worth the while to try and see; let’s make the effort and see what happens.]

The coastal Ga and Dangme in particular have learned from their fishing experience what blessings can flow from exercising the virtues of hope and adventure even in the most uncertain circumstances. Sometimes during the lean fishing season when the stock of fish seems to have been exhausted, the fisherfolk go to sea expecting only to catch a few tiny herrings; but to their surprise they catch large mackerel, turbot or kingfish. Such twists of fortune have made them rather hopeful and less skeptical. Out of this experience, their elders composed these proverbs:

[Fishermen sometimes go afishing for herrings but return with large turbots.]

[One may mention (or expect) tiny herrings and yet go fishing and catch mackerel or kingfish.]

These proverbs provide hope in times of skepticism and despair, or when people are tempted to ask, ‘Can anything good come out o’ Nazareth?’ One may also cite them when faced with anxiety about a new situation.

The point has already been made that one of the most common reasons for refusing to accept change is simply inertia. Sometimes, however, reluctance to accept change is due not to inertia but to pride and prejudice or mistrust. When these stand in the way of accepting change, the wise sages draw attention to practical wisdom that transcends pride and helps one to survive. Such wisdom abounds in the animal kingdom. Dogs normally eat bones and lions feed on prey. But in times of necessity they adapt to their changed situations; when necessary they feed on grass. Such lessons from mammalian nature led the Dangme and Ga sages to compose these proverbs:

[When a lion is in dire need, i.e. starving, it eats grass.]

[When a dog is in dire need, i.e. starving, it eats grass.]

These proverbs resonate with the saying that necessity is the mother of invention. New measures and solutions, even if they are unusual and not particularly acceptable, may turn out to be the most appropriate responses and solutions to current problems. Hence in Ga and Dangme society, change may be accepted, for better or for worse, on both rational and prudential grounds.

The Dangme have a proverb that attributes to the common housefly an insightful observation about life, which has a bearing on change:

[The chief of the flies told a proverb saying, "The world (i.e. life) moves backwards and forwards" or, more literally: "The world has a back and a front side."]

This proverb was created from the keen observation that whenever a fly perches somewhere, it stretches its hind legs backwards and rubs them against each other, then stretches the forelegs forward and wipes its face with them. The fly is saying that the world moves backwards and forwards. The message of the proverb is that those who want to avoid being caught up in life’s deceptions and who wish to be happy, must be cautious, tolerant and prepared for setbacks; for things do not always go smoothly. There are ups and downs; nothing is perfect in all respects. Every popular ideology, slogan, revolution and revival has its progressive aspects and its backward features. For instance, there are advantages and disadvantages in using the latest technologies of modern industry and telecommunications systems. Both healing and adverse side effects may result from the use of even the best medicines. No one can deny the mixed blessings that have come from modern developments such as nuclear technology, reproductive and genetic engineering, long distance travel and tourism, the print and electronic media, to cite just a few. These innovations have brought about improvements in agriculture, longer life and fertility, intercultural penetration and understanding, an explosive distribution of information and knowledge. But they have also introduced many kinds of lethal toxic waste, diseases hitherto unknown, corruption of cultures, increased violence, exploitive sex tourism and so on.

Their experiences with these dualities and incongruities make some people skeptical about innovation and pessimistic about change. Given such experiences in everyday life, proverbs and other sayings have evolved for the purpose of cautioning people not to be overly enthusiastic or overly optimistic about modern innovations. The following Dangme proverbs serve as reminders of the fact that no monolithic progress nor miraculous developments can be claimed for modernization. The Dangme wise people learned long ago that nothing in this world remains the same; rather that things are in a constant state of flux, and that in the ebb and flow of life the state of affairs changes and fortunes change. One thesis passes on, is met by an antithesis, and the two are swallowed up into a synthesis. The pendulum swings and opposites change places. Hence one must be wary of the myth of monolithic development or progress. This is a fact of experience common in nature and in human history, and from which no type of modernization is exempt. To keep aware of these truths and to be cautious about change is the message of the following two Dangme sayings.

[Wherever the day breaks, the sun also sets (or: darkness also falls).

Also,

[Where there once is the noise of celebration and festivity, the same becomes a muted place.]

If proverbs and wise sayings are a window into a people’s culture and philosophy of life, then on the basis of some of their proverbs and wise sayings the Ga and Dangme appear to be ambivalent about modernization and change. On the one hand, there is a clear counsel to resist change as well as justification for continuing in the old ways: Blema kpaa nö atsaa. On the other hand, Akë blema _me ehooo wonu: the old order must change and yield to the new and modern.

Ga and Dangme wisdom suggests that modernization is neither to be avoided as untouchable, nor to be uncritically embraced. New equipment and tools, procedures and methods, systems and technologies may be adopted after careful consideration on utilitarian grounds with respect to a particular situation. Otherwise, the Ga and Dangme view would be to stick to the old ways. When a change is made from something old to something new and the change worsens one’s situation, the Ga or Dangme might ask: Te wötee loo ba wöba? De wa ya loo de we ba? [Did we go or did we come?] The question expresses disapproval of the change, and advises a reversion to the previous status quo. According to Ga and Dangme wisdom, if there is any choice in such a situation, it would not be wise for a person, institution, society or nation merely to follow the fashion and adopt the change. Change is good only if it is appropriate in a given context. One must do what suits one, as a Ga proverb advises:

[If your head does not have the shape of Tëtë’s head, you do not copy Tëtë’s hair style — i.e. you do not barb the same style of haircut which makes Tëtë look handsome.]

Again, the sages have given the advice:

[You do not dance according to the steps of another dancer.]

You should dance to the steps and rhythm with which you are familiar. For you may not be as adept as the person you want to copy, and you may embarrass yourself in the process. In other words, you should be yourself and not allow yourself to be unduly influenced by others whose circumstances may be different from yours.

After all, there is nothing really new or unique under the sun. A Ga or Dangme might say:

[That which has never occurred is beyond the seas.]

That is to say, however new or different something may seem, its kind has been seen before. One can speculate upon its usefulness, and neither be so scared by it as to shy away nor fall over for it without deliberating first.

In the final analysis, then, the dominant Ga and Dangme view seems to be this: When an individual, family, community, institution, or nation is faced with an option to adopt some new tool or equipment or system or technology, those likely to be affected by it must make a rational and responsible choice about its use. In their wisdom the Ga and Dangme sages did not prescribe any a priori, predetermined stance that must be uniformly assumed in every confrontation with change. In practical, contemporary day-to-day living, their progenies do not do that either. Sometimes they are guided by the wisdom of ‘Akë blema _me ehooo wonu,’ and at other times by the proverb, Bë momo bëö pe bë he. In one case, the wise thing to do is to embrace a change unreservedly. In another, the best decision is to resist change. In yet other situations, it is best to accept a change tentatively in a wait-and-see frame of mind. In all cases, a rational choice must be made which is sensitive to the particular situation, context or circumstances.

* Orthographic note: ö = a backward c; ë = a backward E; ñ = an n with a hook to the left at the end.

1. Dr. C.F. Garbers, Chancellor of the Univ. of South Africa (Unisa) made the remark that change is not easy or comfortable, in his address to graduates at a commencement ceremony on 26 Sept. 1997 at Unisa. He had reminded the audience about research concerning the secrets of life in the natural sciences and in other disciplines, and the role that the universities and their products are expected to play in the changing society of South Africa and at the global level.

2. The Dangme are made up of people residing in eight traditional areas: Ada, Ningo (Nugo), Prampram (Gbugbla), Kpone, Shai, Yilo Krobo, Manya Krobo, and Osudoku. All of the eight Dangme sub-groups speak dialects of Dangme which are linguistically similar and mutually intelligible, with only slight differences of usage and pronunciation; but there are more significant differences in the noun vocabularies. The Ga traditional area comprises Ga Mashie, Osu, La, Nungua, Teshie and Tema, where all speak Ga with few differences of dialects.

Although the Ga and Dangme languages are related and similar, they are not mutually intelligible. It is easier for a Dangme to understand Ga than the reverse. Both Ga and Dangme are taught in schools in Ghana up to the diploma level at the university. Discussions have been going on to teach them to the baccalaureate degree level. These are two of the 42 or more distinct languages of Ghana.

According to Dangme and Ga traditions, which are preserved in old songs as well as in some written records, the Ga-Adangme came from a far distant land, east of their present settlements. Some traditions mention Chad as their original home, and others mention Dahomey (now the Republic of Benin), though most traditions say that their original home was Benin—commonly identified as a place in the south central part of modern Nigeria. Whichever the actual location, it is commonly said to lie somewhere on the eastern side of the Volta River, to the north and east of present Togo, probably somewhere within Nigeria.

It is said that some 700 years ago, the Ga-Adangme were driven out by invasions of the Fulani tribe under a chief named Dafoleo. They wandered through Nigeria, Yorubaland and Dahomey. After various stops, they crossed the Volta and most of the tribes founded the Lanimo Kingdom in what is present-day Osudoku. After bitter war that arose among them, they broke up some 300 to 400 hundred years ago and went in several directions until they settled in their present locations.

The Ga and Dangme have a great deal in common in their cultures. They both have a patrilineal system of inheritance. Originally their societies were ruled by traditional priests, but later under the influence of their Akan neighbors, they came to be ruled by secular chiefs. In many respects their cultural outlook is similar to that of other Ghanaian groups and for that matter other African ethnic groups. Their traditional occupations are fishing and farming, but they can now be found in every kind of occupation. Although they are quite enterprising, the Ga and Dangme are notably modest and abhor inordinate ambition, especially for material gain.

3. There is a common tendency to confuse literacy with education. The term ‘education’ comes from the Latin word ‘educate’ and means to bring up,’ or ‘to teach.’ It involves a process of providing and developing knowledge, training, skills. Such education could be theoretical or practical. Africans had been doing this before the advent of European type schools and colleges. A person may not be literate but highly educated in farming, hunting or fishing technique. There is need to be more careful in describing people as being educated or uneducated.

4. About 68 percent of the population of Ghana live in rural areas. See National Population Policy (Accra: National Population Council, 1994), p. 9.

5. According to the latest available figures which are for l988/l989 the overall education statistics for Ghana are: 41 percent can read; 39 percent can write; 50 percent are numerate. Overall, about 39 percent Ghanaian adults can read, write and do arithmetic. A net of 94 percent school-age children are enrolled. See Ghana Living Standards (Accra: Ghana Statistical Service, 1995), pp. 37-43.

6. These notes on the features of African proverbs are taken from my abridged book, "Ga and Dangme Proverbs for Preaching and Teaching" (1996) in CD-ROM, African Proverbs-Collections, Studies, Bibliographies, Volume I Record 1/420.

7. See my paper, "Are African Proverbs an Ambiguous Source of Wisdom for Living? A Case Study of Ga and Dangme Proverbs," (1996) in Willem Saayman (ed.) Embracing the Baobab Tree: The African Proverb in the 21st Century, CD-ROM: African Proverbs-Collections, Studies, Bibliographies, Volume II, Record 1/169.

Accam, T.N.N. (1972) Dangme Abë Gbi, Accra: Bureau of Ghana Languages.

Amartey, A.A. (1985) Namöale, Accra: Bureau of Ghana Languages.

. (1989) Beginner’s Ga (Ga Kasemö Shishijee), Accra: Ga Society.

Ardey-Acquah, Monica. (1982) "Ga Proverbs" A long essay submitted to the Department of Linguistics, University of Ghana.

Caesar, C.T. (1982) "The Cultural Content of Dangme Proverbs" A long essay submitted to the Language Center, University of Ghana, Legon.

Dalfovo, A.T. (1996) "The Proverbs and the Gospel: From Experience to Allegory" in CD-ROM: African Proverbs—Collections, Studies, Bibliographies, Stan Nussbaum (ed.), Colorado: Global Mapping International.

Dzobo, N.K. (1972) African Proverbs: Guide to Conduct, Vol.I, University of Ghana, Cape Coast.

. (1975) African Proverbs: The Moral Value of Ewe Proverbs, Vol. II, University of Ghana, Cape Coast.

Hountondji, P. (1983) African Philosophy: Myth and Reality, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kudadjie, J.N. (1996) "Ga and Dangme Proverbs for Preaching and Teaching" in CD-ROM: African Proverbs—Collections, Studies, Bibliographies, Stan Nussbaum (ed.), Colorado: Global Mapping International.

. (1996) "Are African Proverbs an Ambiguous Source of Wisdom for Living? A Case Study of Ga and Dangme Proverbs" in CD-ROM: African Proverbs—Collections, Studies, Bibliographies, Stan Nussbaum (ed.), Colorado: Global Mapping International.

Nee-Adjabeng Ankra, E.A. (1966) Agwaseñ Wiemöi Kë Abëi Komëi, Accra: Bureau of Ghana Languages.

Yankah, Kwesi. (1986) "Proverb speaking as a creative process: the Akan of Ghana," Proverbium 3.

. (1989) "Proverbs: Problems and Strategies in Field Research," Proverbium 6.