CHAPTER  TWO

POST VATICAN II DEVELOPMENTS IN THE  CATHOLIC CHURCH’S TEACHING ON NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS IN GENERAL AND MUSLIMS IN PARTICULAR

2.1.       Introduction

            In this chapter, we will examine post-Vatican II developments by starting from the establishment of the Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions to the present day. Our main objective will be to illustrate how far the Catholic Church has developed its relations with non-Christians in general and Muslims in particular after the SVC. We will explore briefly the establishment, goal and the dialogue activities of the Secretariat. Then we will examine Pope Paul VI's and John Paul II’s teachings concerning the Catholic Church’s relations with non-Christians in general and Muslims in particular in order to demonstrate the attitude of the Magisterium. Finally, we will focus our attention on the documents of the Secretariat. Within this context, we will highlight the significant points of Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims [1969,1981]. Then we will analyse the documents “The Attitude of the Church towards the Followers of Other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission” [1984]; and “Dialogue and Proclamation: Reflections and Orientations on Interreligious Dialogue and the Proclamation of the Gospel of Jesus Christ” [1991] which seek to explain the relationship between dialogue, mission and proclamation according to the Secretariat.

2.2.       The Establishment of the Secretariat For Non-Christian Religions

            It was established by Pope Paul VI in May 1964 to undertake the dialogue activities of the Catholic Church before the promulgation of Nostra Aetate. In 1989, it was renamed the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue[1]. The establishment of this Secretariat  can be regarded as one of the most important fruits of the positive statements of the Second Vatican Council concerning non-Christian religions. Prior to that council the church had not felt a need to set up a similar foundation to organise its relations with non-Christians. Pope Paul VI announced his intention to found the Secretariat in his opening speech of the second session of the Council in 1963. It was given the task of initiating dialogue with followers of other religions and has adhered fairly closely to the understanding of the goal of dialogue as defined by Pope Paul VI in his Ecclesiam Suam, as we will see later, and the Conciliar documents, as these have been analysed the previous chapter.[2] Its legal objective was expressed in the Regimini Ecclesiae as follows :        

To search for methods and ways of opening a suitable dialogue with non-Christians. It should strive, therefore, in order that non-Christians come to be known honestly and esteemed justly  by Christians and that, in their turn, non-Christians can adequately know and esteem Christian doctrine and life.[3][M1] 

It seems that this passage clearly states that one of the main objectives of the Secretariat is to acquaint non-Christians with Christianity. Also the following explanations of the first president of the Secretariat supports this view.

            In response to a suggestion that the age of mission was over, by establishing a special Secretariat for dialogue with other religions, the first President of the Secretariat, Cardinal Paulo Marella, pointed out that “far from being an alternative to the mission...dialogue represents, on the contrary, its way and its method in the context of contemporary society”.[4] He went on to argue that this is not to suggest that the task of the Secretariat overlaps that of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. He stated that the objective of the Secretariat is “closely connected with but distinct” from that of the Congregation. For that reason the purpose of the Secretariat can be understood not as direct evangelism but as a form of  preparatio evangelica. Marella made clear this objective by stating that the Secretariat

certainly does not aim at obtaining the conversion of the interlocutor at once, because it respects his dignity and his freedom. It aims, however, at his advantage and would like to prepare him for a fuller communion of sentiments and convictions.[5]

He then informed the Council Fathers that the Secretariat was set up “to establish  good relations with people of other faiths on a human level”[6] not on a religious level. By arguing this, it seems that Cardinal Marella implies that the Church wants to establish friendly relations with non-Christians on a practical level, not on a religious or theological one. In so doing, he made it clear that the Church does not want to convert people of other religious traditions but will seek to prepare them for the Christian faith.

            After the closing session of the Council, the Secretariat undertook the Catholic Church’s dialogue activities with non-Christians. We will briefly analyse the dialogue activities of the Secretariat by dividing them into four periods according to its presidents. The reason for this approach is that the president who is in charge of the Secretariat has often followed different policies from his predecessor.

2.2.1.    The Period of Cardinal Marella [1965-1973]

            During this period, the Secretariat authorities decided to prepare its plans and projects in accordance with the task to which the Church and the Pope Paul VI had called it.[7] The members of the Secretariat published a number of booklets[8] which were designed to provide guidelines for those engaging in inter-religious dialogue and to encourage Christians to have a better understanding and knowledge of the beliefs and practices of their dialogue partners. During this period, the Secretariat started to publish a quarterly Bulletin to provide information and documentation, and to provoke reflection on issues relating to dialogue.[9] In these publications, dialogue was defined as any type of friendly encounter between Christians and non-Christians.[10] The significant points of these publications can be summarised as follows:

            Firstly, in accordance with the main objectives of the Secretariat a distinction was made between human and religious dialogue. In human dialogue, the followers of different religions come together to face some common human problems posed in the society in which they live. Religious dialogue, on the other hand, has to do with the discussions of religious beliefs, practices and customs. According to those publications, in both these types of dialogue, the emphasis should be on the interpersonal encounter between the participants and should be understood as a meeting between persons, not as a meeting between religious systems and beliefs.[11]

            Secondly, these publications highlighted the common elements between Christians and non-Christians. One of the most significant common points which makes dialogue necessary for Christians with non-Christians is the common humanity which all people share.[12] [This point was also expressed in Nostra Aetate as we have observed in the previous chapter, and the Kandy Consultation of the WCC in 1967 which we will look in the next chapter]. Other common points regarded  as significant for dialogue are the truth and goodness which can be found in all religions. In these publications, it is indicated that God's word is present among all men and women, and God's supernatural revelatory presence may be found in other religions.[13]

            Thirdly, these publications spelled out the objectives of inter-religious dialogue as follows: To improve and promote friendly relations between the adherents of different religions by breaking down hostilities and prejudices through personal meetings; to develop the idea of a common humanity between participants in dialogue; and to prepare the way through which the gospel can be proclaimed to all people.[14] These objectives of dialogue seem to imply that the establishing of friendly relationships with non-Christians by disregarding past hostilities and prejudices is urged by the Church in order to prepare the way through which Christians can proclaim the Gospel message in a better way to their dialogue partner.

            Besides these publications, the Secretariat convened a number of general meetings with its own consultors to discuss its future policies and to evaluate its own activities in order to prepare the groundroots of dialogue with non-Christians. The significant outcomes of its consultors’ meetings can be summarised as follows: Firstly, it was felt that although non-Christian religions contained real goodness and values which Christians should respect, they did not have the fullness of divine revelation that Christianity had.[15] Secondly, four consultors group were set up to deal with the approaches to the major world religions, namely  Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and African traditional religions. Concerning Islam, it was recommended to the Church authorities to make greater efforts to make Christians aware of the need of entering into dialogue with Muslims.[16] During this period, although the Secretariat itself did not sponsor any dialogue meeting, its representatives  joined some dialogue meetings which were organised by the WCC, as we shall see in the next chapter.[17]

            In short, during this period, 1967-1973, the Secretariat set up its structures, determined its objectives and policies for dialogue with  followers of other religions inside and outside the Church. The Secretariat also produced some publications and developed some guidelines to prepare its members to enter into dialogue with others by knowing something about them.  

2.2.2.    The Period of Cardinal Pignedoli [1973-1980]

            After finishing its interior structure, the Secretariat, under the presidency of Cardinal Pignedoli, opened its door to the world in order to enter into dialogue with non-Christians. The emphasis shifted from studies and preparing guidelines to personal encounters.[18] As soon as he became president of the Secretariat, Pignedoli sent a letter to all Catholic Bishops to ask them to establish  commissions for entering into dialogue with non-Christians in their region. Obtaining the approval of the Pope, he prepared an annual programme. According to this programme, the Secretariat would continue its dialogue activities in accordance with its aims which had been determined and defined in the previous period. Christian dialogue partners should be prepared to familiarise themselves with the traditions of non-Christians by gaining knowledge about them in order to develop and promote friendship and hospitality. Local churches should  be urged and supported in their relationships with the adherents of non-Christian religions.[19]

            In this period, the Secretariat sponsored and co-organised some dialogue meetings with people of other faiths, established a co-operation with the World Council of Churches, and its members visited different Muslim countries to exchange information and experience. The most significant dialogue meeting between Christians and Muslims was gathered by the initiation of the Libyan government  in Tripoli [1976]. Because of its importance for the development of Christian-Muslim dialogue, some of its relevant points will be highlighted.

            In this meeting both Muslims and Christians came together for the first time in the history of the Secretariat “to create a new atmosphere of mutual confidence between the Muslim and Christian world.”[20] The main objective of this meetings was expressed as follows:

They (both Muslims and Christians) have agreed that the aim of this dialogue is the exchange of the knowledge and ideas that contribute to a better mutual knowledge of history and civilisation between the participants of the two religions, in order to clarify the convergence and differences sincerely and objectively, allowing each party to cling to its beliefs, its obligations and its commitments in a spirit of concord and mutual respect.[21]

In its final report of this meeting, both Muslim and Christian participants agreed  to make a number of recommendations to create a more positive environment for dialogue. In our opinion two of them were very important from the theological point of view. The first one was the acceptance of a common revelatory heritage and acknowledgement of all the prophets without disparaging and discrediting them.[22] To Muslims, this recommendation implied that the Roman Catholic Church intended to speak about the prophet Muhammad in the process of Christian-Muslim dialogue. The intention can be regarded as a very significant development in the post-conciliar period, since as observed in the previous chapter, the Church Fathers preferred to be silent on this issue in the conciliar statements of the Second Vatican Council.

            In the Tripoli meeting the Catholic Church seems to have broken its silence by taking the first step towards an acknowledgement of the prophethood of Muhammad. For example, Fr. Jacques Langfry, in his presentation, asked Muslims for forgiveness  for injurious remarks made about Muhammad by Christians in the past. According to him, in this new process starting with the Second Vatican Council, Christians should be more respectful towards the Prophet Muhammad as the prophet of Islam.[23]

            The other issue was the insistence on the necessity of religious freedom for the followers of both religions and the condemnation of proselytism. The report says:

With a view of  a real co-operation between the Muslim world and the Christian world, the two parties recommend ending all pressure exerted by Christians on Muslims to turn them away from their beliefs, or by Muslims on Christians for the same purpose.[24]

Clearly this meeting established a basis for both Christians and Muslims to  break down the barriers of hostility and prejudice about each other which formed in the history of Christian-Muslim relations.

            In addition to the above activities, a Christian-Muslim research group was established by the coming together of a number of Christian and Muslim scholars in 1977. The main task of this group was to work together in order to determine the theological basis and framework of Christian-Muslim dialogue. The members of this group have been working together since that day.  Although, this group does not directly represent the official view, we may say that the Christian side’s views  are the indirect reflections of the official Catholic teaching concerning Christian-Muslim dialogue,[25] because some members of the Catholic side, such as Robert Caspar, were among those who prepared the conciliar statements concerning Muslims.

2.2.3.    The Period of Archbishop Jadot [1980-1984]

            Under the presidency of Archbishop Jadot, the Secretariat focused its attention on encouraging local churches to organise regional dialogue meetings with their Muslim neighbours by indicating that “the really pivotal dialogue was that carried out between Christians of the local churches and Muslims of the same country”.[26] Archbishop Jadot also indicated that because of the monotheistic character, fast spreading and socio-political teaching Christians should give Islam and its followers special attention and priority in their dialogue activities.[27] Within this context the function of the Secretariat was seen as an initiator, collaborator and supporter of local churches.

            There were no significant dialogue meetings which we can deal with here concerning Christian-Muslim dialogue. But there were two  important events  during this period. The first one was  the publishing of the revised edition of the Guidelines for Dialogue between Muslims and Christians [1969] by Maurice Borrmans in 1981.[28] The second one was the promulgation of the document “The Attitude of the Church towards the Followers of Other Religions; Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission”[29] by the Secretariat in its Plenary Assembly in 1984. Detailed information of these two documents will be given below.

2.2.4.    The Period of Cardinal Arinze [1984- ]

            With the presidency of Cardinal Arinze, another shift occurred in Secretariat dialogue policy. During this period the Secretariat was renamed as the Pontifical Council for Interrreligious Dialogue as noted above. The Pontifical Council focused its attention on organising study groups and participating in academic seminars in order to discuss and seek out areas of co-operation between Christians and Muslims.[30] There have been a number of study meetings between the Pontifical Council and different Muslim organisations. For example, it jointly organised three study meetings  with the Royal Academy for Islamic civilisation in Amman, Jordan in relation to following issues : “Religious Education in Modern Society”[31], “The Role of Women in Society according to Islam and Christianity”[32], “Nationalism Today: Problems and Challenges”.[33] Also, the Pontifical Council co-sponsored another three study meetings with the World Islamic Call Society on the following issues: “Mission and Da’wah”[34], “Coexistence between Religions: Reality and Horizons”[35] and “The Media and the Presentation of Religion”.[36] It also jointly co-ordinated a colloquium together with the Iranian authorities in Iran under the title of “A Theological Evaluation of Modernity”[37]  in 1994.

            Cardinal Arinze outlines the above study meetings between Christians and Muslims as having helped to build bridges of friendship and trust and to enable Christians and Muslims to study together and focus on what they can do to make society better”.[38] Furthermore, Arinze remarks that Christian-Muslim dialogue meetings have shown that “Belief in God has to be the foundation for fruitful Muslim-Christian relations, respect for the principle of religious freedom will help and human values can be promoted together”.[39]

            In this period the Pontifical Council also prepared a joint declaration together with the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples in order to highlight the relation between dialogue and proclamation under the title “Dialogue and Proclamation; Reflections and Orientations on Interreligious Dialogue and the Proclamation of the Gospel of Jesus Christ”.[40] The analyses of this  document will be given below.

            Besides the above dialogue activities of the Pontifical Council under the presidency of Cardinal Arinze, two plenary assemblies were convened in order to discuss and evaluate the Catholic Church’s dialogue activities with the followers of non-Christian religions. These occurred in 1992 and 1995.[41]  Our examination of these assemblies shows  that there are a number of important points which came out affecting  the Catholic Church’s relations with non-Christians in general and Muslim in particular. The points can be summarised as follows:

            Firstly, it was acknowledged that dialogue is a part of evangelisation, as was stated by Pope Paul II in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio in 1990.[42] Secondly, although it stated that the main objective of dialogue should be mutual enrichment, and that Christian values could be regarded as “a source of enrichment for others,” it omitted to say that the values of other religions might be a source of enrichment for Christians. Thirdly, the possibility of conversion in the process of dialogue was acknowledged by indicating that conversion “is not the direct aim of dialogue, but if through dialogue some are led to embrace Christianity, this is a source of joy for Christians”. This principle can be acceptable as long as it is not regarded as one of the main objectives of dialogue. Lastly, it emphasised that Christians should enter into dialogue with followers of other religions in the name of Jesus Christ to show that his love embraces all things.[43] It seems that in this statement what Muslims attribute to God is attributed by Christians to Jesus. For that reason we argue that if Muslims and Christians enter into dialogue with people of other faiths in the name of God rather than the name of Islam and the Church, this would be acceptable to both Muslims and Christians and lead to establishing a better and fruitful relationship between them.

            From the Muslim point of view, we argue that the above points of these plenary assemblies have negative implications for interfaith dialogue. Through these points, it seems that Christian participants of dialogue are urged to evangelise their non-Christian partners by proclaiming the Christian message to them and in the end leading them to convert to Christianity.[44]

            Besides these negative implications of the plenary assemblies of the Catholic Church, there are also a number of positive implications of the dialogue activities of the Pontifical Council concerning Christian-Muslim dialogue.

            Firstly, the Church authorities were encouraged to study non-Christian religions in general and Islam in particular in order to know the religious beliefs and practices of their dialogue partners. In this way both Christians and their dialogue partners would acquire objective knowledge about each other leading to the development of mutual understanding between them.

            Secondly, one of the most significant principles of a fruitful dialogue was reiterated by the Pontifical Council as follows: Dialogue should occur between the followers of different religions and not become a meeting between religious systems. If the opposite of this is argued, then that activity would not be dialogue but a clash between religions. For example, if a suitable environment for dialogue has not been established, discussions on religious issues such as beliefs and doctrines could lead participants to dispute with each other by claiming that their own religious traditions are better or superior. 

            Thirdly, as a continuation of the above points, it was announced that the principle of  sharing a common humanity should be the main reason for establishing a better society in which adherents of different religious traditions can live together peacefully. 

            Fourthly, a first step was taken by the Catholic Church to deal with the theological questions in Christian-Muslim dialogue. As pointed out above, in the Tripoli meeting the Christian participants spoke of Muhammad, using positive statements.

2.3.       Pope Paul VI and His Dialogue Activities [1963-1978]

            Paul VI was elected Pope during the Second Vatican Council and stayed in this job until his death in 1978. During his pontificate, starting from his earlier days he made great efforts to create a positive dialogue environment for a better relationship between Christians and non-Christians. In doing so, he established the Secretariat for non-Christians, and then issued his first encyclical  Ecclesiam Suam [45]  to determine the Secretariat's policy in its relation to people of other religions, which led to the promulgation of Nostra Aetate.  He also issued an exhortation entitled Evangelii Nuntiandi, [46] in 1975, and  made a number of visits to various Muslim countries to promote inter-religious dialogue with Muslims. In order to appreciate his contribution to the development of dialogue these events will be examined by following their chronological order.

2.3.1.            Ecclesiam Suam

            This encyclical of Pope VI was issued in 1964 three months after the establishment of the Secretariat in order to outline the theological and pastoral bases for entering into dialogue with people of other faiths.[47] Dupuis states that this encyclical urged the Council Fathers to assume a more positive attitude towards followers of other religions and indicates that because of its character the Pope became known as the "Pope of Dialogue".[48]

            In this encyclical all humanity was described  in terms of four concentric circles, the innermost of which was represented by the Roman Catholic Church. The outermost circle represented those who did not believe in the existence of God. The third circle was made up of those who were worshippers of God through the great world religions of Asia and Africa namely, Islam , Hinduism and Buddhism. The second circle from the outside and directly surrounding the Roman Catholic centre represented those who were Christians but are not subjects of the Holy See. It seems that this description implied that the Pope regarded the Catholic Church at the centre of the spiritual world and that the further any group deviated from teachings and practices the further away from the centre it stood. This description also implies that the purpose of dialogue between Catholic Christians and others is to draw them into the centre. It would seem that the aim of dialogue was to make members those who were outside the Catholic Church.

            The motive of dialogue between Christians and non-Christians was expressed by the Pope as the Church’s love for all humankind, since he says that this is itself an expression of God’s own love for all men and women.[49] In the encyclical the Pope also encouraged Christians to enter into dialogue with non-Christians to preserve and promote religious freedom, human brotherhood, social welfare and civil order.[50] These points were highlighted later in Nostra Aetate as noted in the previous chapter.

            As far as the methodology of dialogue is concerned Ecclesiam Suam speaks of two types of dialogue. The  first is concerned directly with the preaching of the gospel. In this type, dialogue is described as “a method of accomplishing the apostolic mission” and as a “way of making spiritual communications” with the followers of other religious traditions. The second  type of dialogue is considered as a form of pre-evangelisation. Concerning this type, the Pope indicates that by working with others within the context of a common effort to solve the problems of humanity, feelings of good will toward the Christian faith can be engendered in the dialogue process among the followers of other religions who will then become more open to the missionary proclamation of the church.[51]

            Concerning the objective of dialogue, too, the Pope emphasised that he is not interested in religious discussion with the members of other religions for its own sake. He says the Church's main purpose in this process is to win souls, not to settle questions definitively.[52] Here, the Pope clarifies the above intention of the Catholic Church concerning the aim of dialogue by maintaining that in the process of dialogue the main objective of the Church is not to discuss the religious issues, but to prepare non-Christians to be receptive to the Christian faith.

            In Ecclesiam Suam, for the first time in the history of the Papacy, Muslims and their religion, Islam, were praised by the Pope who declared that “the Moslem religion especially, is deserving of our admiration for all that is true and good in its worship of God”.[53]

            Finally, the Pope warned Christians not to change their missionary policy toward those who belonged to other religions in the process of dialogue by pointing out:

The desire to come together as brothers must not lead to a watering down or whittling away of the truth. Our dialogue must not weaken our attachment to our faith. Our apostolate must not make vague compromises concerning the principles which regulate and govern the profession of the Christian faith both in theory and in practice.[54]

In short, according to Ecclesiam Suam the main aim of the  interreligious dialogue was to preserve and promote religious freedom, human brotherhood, social welfare and civil order. And in this process, it says, Christians should use dialogue either as a tool for mission or as a form of pre-evangelisation by avoiding religious discussions with the members of other religions. This last sentence opened a discussion among Catholics between entering into dialogue with non-Christians and the Church's evangelising mission among the Catholic authorities, as we will see below.

2.3.2.    Evangelii Nuntiandi

            After the close of the Second Vatican Council, the conciliar statements concerning the importance of dialogue between Christians and non-Christians caused some problems with respect to the relationship between dialogue and evangelisation. While some Christians regarded the dialogue as a new tool to convert non-Christians by preaching the gospel to them, others thought that the Church was about to give up  evangelisation.[55] To deal with this confusing situation concerning the relationship between evangelisation and dialogue a Synod of Bishops was convened in Rome in 1974. In the end the participants could not produce a proper statement and handed the matter to the Pope. He produced an exhortation called Evangelii Nuntiandi as a response to the synod decision in 1975. Although it mostly concerns the need for evangelisation in the modern world, the Pope speaks of the religions of the world in one passage within the context of the Church’s evangelising mission.

            In this section, the Pope urges Christians to esteem and respect non-Christians for the following reasons: They represent the living expression of  the spiritual lives of millions of peoples; they embody the human search for God for thousand of years and, although imperfect, they do so with deep sincerity and righteousness; they have taught generations of people how to pray; they contain innumerable “seeds of the Word”; they constitute a true “preparation for the Gospel”.[56] These statements of the Pope are  similar to the conciliar ones as observed in the previous chapter.

            The Pope invites Christians only to show respect for other faiths, not to enter into dialogue with their followers. He even avoids using the word dialogue in any part of this exhortation, although he was called the “Pope of dialogue” because of his encyclical Ecclesiam Suam.[57]

            In this exhortation, the Pope clearly portrays the non-Christian religions as incomplete searches for God. He argues that they cannot establish an authentic and living relationship with God because they do not have supernatural elements. On the contrary, he says, “The Church finds support in the fact that the religion of Jesus, which she proclaims through evangelisation, objectively places man in relation to the plan of God, with his living presence and with his action”. Because of this, he maintains “the proclamation of Jesus Christ” should be the essential duty of the Church.[58] When we compare the statements of the Pope on this point with the views of Rahner and the conciliar documents as expressed in the previous chapter, it could be argued that the Pope has taken a step backwards with regard to the values of the non-Christian religions. For, while Rahner and the conciliar statements accept the availability of supernatural elements in non-Christian religions, the Pope openly rejects this in Evangelii Nuntiandi.

            Regarding Pope Paul VI's negative attitude towards non-Christian religions after the positive statements of the Second Vatican Council, Sullivan discloses that the negative attitude of the Pope started with a sermon in Rome in 1966. In this sermon, the Pope declared that non-Christian religions "are attempts, efforts, endeavours; they are arms raised toward heaven to which they seek to arrive, but they are not a response to the gesture by which God has come to meet man. This gesture is Christianity, Catholic life".[59] 

            According to Sullivan[60], there are two possible reasons for this negative attitude. One of them was the influence of the writings of some French Catholic theologians such as Jean Danielou. To support this argument, Sullivan points to the noticeable similarity between the Pope's sermon in 1966 and his encyclical Evangelii Nuntiandi, on the one hand, and Danielou's article written in 1964,[61] on the other.

              Another reason might have been the increasingly positive approaches of some Catholic theologians towards non-Christian religions. Before the promulgation of the Nostra Aetate, the Council had already said something positive concerning the possibility of salvation for non-Christians. Following this, in a conference on “Christian Revelation and World Religions,” some theologians such as Küng considered non-Christian religions as the "ordinary way of salvation" while accepting Christianity as the "extraordinary way of salvation".[62] The Pope considered that this sort of distinction could only impede  evangelization,[63] and was an excuse to justify giving up the work of evangelisation.[64]

            There seems to be a double standard in Pope Paul VI’s views concerning non-Christians and their religions. On the one hand, he tried to show the Catholic attitude towards other religions positively by saying Christians admire and esteem those people "who adore the One and Unique God."[65] In his face to face meetings with non-Christians--for example in meeting with the Grant Mufti of Istanbul—he tried to remove the anxieties of followers of those religions concerning the relationship between dialogue and mission. On the other hand, in his addresses to Christians he insisted on the necessity of evangelisation to convert those people by indicating that non-Christian religions have been unsuccessful in bringing their followers to an authentic relationship with God.

            In short, as has been observed, it is very difficult to say that Pope Paul VI’s statements have had positive theological implications for the development of interreligious dialogue by going beyond the statements of the Second Vatican Council. In spite of this, Muslims should appreciate Pope Paul VI's dialogue initiatives, because of his opening the doors of the Vatican to non-Christian, especially Muslim delegations. By doing this, Pope Paul VI became the first Pope who opened the doors of the Vatican to Muslims.

2.4.       Pope John Paul II and His Dialogue Activities

            As soon as he was elected Pope in 1978, Pope John Paul II started to express the official Catholic understanding towards other religions by issuing his encyclical Redemptor Hominis 1979.[66] In 1990 he published another encyclical Redemptoris Missio.[67] In addition to these encyclicals, the Pope visited a number of Muslim and non-Muslim countries and accepted delegations from other religions in the Vatican in order to promote inter-religious dialogue with followers of non-Christian religions. Pope John Paul II's dialogue activities will be examined by dividing them into three groups namely, the encyclicals, addresses to Christian and non-Christian religious leaders on several occasions, and speeches to Muslims during his visits to Muslim countries.

2.4.1.            Encyclicals

            As noted above, Pope John Paul II published two significant encyclicals which have significant implications concerning the relationship between Christians and non-Christians. Here, the related passages of these two encyclicals will be considered.

2.4.1.1. Redemptor Hominis

            Although this encyclical was prepared to reflect upon the role of Jesus Christ as the redeemer of the world within the context of the teaching of the Church, it can be regarded as an important official document because of its  encouragement to Christians to enter into dialogue with non-Christians after the Second Vatican Council. Three passages of this encyclical in particular are directly related to non-Christians and their religions. The important points of these passages will be highlighted.

            In the first passage, the Pope urges Christians to come together with adherents of non-Christian religions to establish better relations "through dialogue, contacts, prayer in common, investigation of the treasure of human spirituality".[68] In the second passage, he praises the statements of Vatican II which urge Christians to respect and esteem the spiritual values of non-Christians religions by declaring that:

The Council document on non-Christian religions is filled with deep esteem for the great spiritual values, indeed for the primacy of the spiritual, which in the life of mankind finds expression in religion and then in morality, with direct effects on the whole culture.[69]

Also, the Pope states that there are some values and truth in non-Christian religions by arguing that the values of those religions are the result of the Spirit who is universally active in the world, and the truths of those religions, too, are “reflections of one truth, ‘the seeds of the Word’”.[70] It seems that these two arguments imply that non-Christian religions do not have as complete revelation as do Christians, but have  partial reflections of the exhaustive Christian revelation. By arguing this, Pope John Paul II recalls the statement of the Nostra Aetate.

            In the third passage, too, the Pope stresses that the strategy of the Church in her missionary activities toward  non-Christians should be carried out within the context of “esteem, respect and discernment”. He maintains that “the missionary attitude always begins with a feeling of deep esteem for ‘what is in man’, for what man has himself worked out in the depths of his spirit concerning the most profound and important problems”.[71] In fact, this statement implies that there is a missionary mandate beneath the Christian esteem and respect for non-Christians.

2.4.1.2.  Redemptoris  Missio

            This encyclical was issued in 1990 to express the validity and universality of the Church's evangelising mission by reflecting upon the following questions:

Is missionary work among non-Christians still relevant? Has it not been replaced by interreligious dialogue? Is not human development an adequate goal of the Church’s mission? Is it not possible to attain salvation in any religion? Why then should there be missionary activity?[72]

The Pope also dealt with the issues concerning  the Catholic Church's relation with non-Christians to determine the relationship between dialogue and mission. He reserved three passages to discuss the Catholic Church's relation with non-Christians under the title “Dialogue with our Brothers and Sisters of other Religions” in chapter five of the encyclical. Those passages need to be examined to find out how the Magisterium perceives interreligious dialogue within the context of the Church's missionary activities.

            In the first passage, the Pope describes dialogue as “a method and means of mutual knowledge and enrichment” and then sees it “as a part of the Church’s evangelizing mission”, since, according to him there is “no conflict between proclaiming Christ and engaging in interreligious dialogue”.[73] Also, in this passage, he maintains that in the process of interreligious activity dialogue should be implemented by Christians “with the conviction that the Church is the ordinary means of salvation and that she alone posses the fullness of the means of salvation”.[74] At this point, Eric J. Sharpe rightly asks the following questions, "If the other religious traditions do not possess the fullness of the means of salvation, what do they possess?"[75]                  

            In the second passage, after repeating his  Redemptor Hominis statement and the conciliar statement in Nostra Aetate concerning the requirement of esteem and respect of the Church for the values of non-Christian religions because of the availability of the Spirit in them, the Pope goes on to say that during the dialogue process Christians can find the “seeds of the Word” and “a ray of that truth which enlightens all men” in their dialogue partners’ religions. He also asks that in that process non-Christian religions should be seen as positive challenges for the Church. For, he states that, thanks to dialogue the challenges of those religions” stimulate the Church both to discover and acknowledge the signs of Christ’s presence and the working of the Spirit” in non-Christian religions.[76] Here, the Pope recalls the conciliar statements which consider the truth and holy things of non-Christian religions as partial reflections of the Christian truth namely Jesus Christ. In other words, the Pope's statement means that the truth and holy things of non-Christian religions are the result of the hidden presence of Christ and Holy Spirit in them.

            In the third passage, the Pope urges both Christians and non-Christians to develop the  “dialogue of life” by sharing their spiritual experiences and trying to build “a more just and fraternal society”.[77] This means living together with people of other faiths as neighbours by establishing mutual respect and mutual understanding with them. In our opinion, this sort of dialogue can be regarded as the ideal dialogue which is necessary for people living together peacefully with those who belong to other faiths. As we will see in the next chapter, the World Council of Churches has emphasised this type of dialogue in its documents almost on every occasion.

            In addition to these passages, there are also some important statements which relate to the Catholic Church’s attitude towards non-Christians. For example, at the beginning of the encyclical the Pope announces Jesus Christ as the “one saviour of all, the only one able to reveal God and lead to God” by arguing that “salvation can only come from” him.[78] Undoubtedly, this implies that no one else can grant salvation. Knitter indicates that by stressing this absoluteness and superiority of Jesus for salvation, the Pope is saying that “whatever other ‘mediations’ of God’s love there may be in other religions, ‘they cannot be understood as parallel or complementary to his’”.[79] Knitter further clarifies that with this argument the Pope does not only reject “just parallel revelations that would be equalised, but he also rejects complementary revelations that could learn from each other”.[80]

            After this announcement, the Pope maintains that this “salvation is offered to all” by declaring:

The universality of salvation means that it is granted not only to those who explicitly believe in Christ and have entered the Church. Since salvation is offered to all, it must be concretely available to all. But it is clear today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church. The social and cultural conditions in which they live do not permit this, and frequently they have been brought up in other religious traditions. For such people salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his Sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free co-operation.[81]

When this passage is examined, it can be seen that it reflects the main teaching of both Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church concerning the position of non-Christians in the process of interreligious dialogue after the Second Vatican Council and even before it. The following points can be drawn from the above passage.

            The salvation granted by Christ primarily for those within the Church is available universally for all  people. Normally, to attain this salvation it is necessary to accept the Gospel message or to enter into the Church. But, in today’s world there are many good people in other religions whose social and cultural conditions do not allow them to accept the Gospel message or to enter into the church. For those people salvation becomes available through the grace of Christ by the help of the Holy Spirit. This passage implies that non-Christians, one way or another, should be connected with the Christian message or Christianity to attain salvation because their own religious traditions do not have salvific value to provide salvation to them. Briefly, this passage of Redemptoris Missio indicates that there is the possibility of salvation for non-Christians, but this occurs not through their own religious traditions but through the hidden presence of Christ and the universal activity of the Holy Spirit in them.

             In fact, this kind of understanding is not new and particular to Pope John Paul II, since similar ideas had been developed by Pope Pius XII and Karl Rahner before the Second Vatican Council, as we have observed in the first chapter. The arguments of this passage are particularly compatible with Rahner’s theses concerning Christianity’s relationship with non-Christian religions. For that reason, we may say that Rahner’s views concerning non-Christians became the official teaching of the Catholic Church roughly thirty years  after their development by Rahner.[82] It should be clarified, however, that with regard to the function of the Church there is a difference between Rahner and Pope John Paul II's views. For, while the Pope gives the Church a very significant place because of her function of making Christ known in the world, Rahner questions this function of the Church because of the objective nature of Christ's action.

            As has been seen, in Redemptor Hominis and Redemtoris Missio, Pope Paul II's affirmation of the presence of the Holy Spirit in the lives of non-Christians can be regarded as a positive development. However, in his apostolic letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente [1994] he seems rather negative by arguing that non-Christian religions are fulfilled in Jesus Christ and Christianity. These are seen in terms of God's self-communication in his Son, incarnate in response to the universal human search for God expressed in the religious traditions. He states that "The Incarnate Word is the fulfillment of the yearning present in all the religions of mankind: this fulfillment is brought about by God himself and transcends all human expectations. Christ is the fulfillment of the yearning of all world religions, and as such, he is their sole and the definitive completion."[83]  

2.4.2.            Addresses to Christian and Non-Christian Religious Leaders           

            In addition to the statements of these two encyclicals, there are also other significant statements in Pope John Paul II's various addresses which will be highlighted.

            In his address to the  leaders of non-Christian religions, during his visit to India, the Pope remarked that thanks to dialogue, which depends on mutual respect and mutual understanding, followers of different religions can overcome barriers and difficulties to create a more friendly environment as they try to solve problems and promote common ideals of humanity.[84]

            In his address to the Roman Curia after the World Day of Prayer in Assisi[85] with the followers of various religions, he repeated his argument concerning the presence of the Holy Spirit in all people by declaring that “every authentic prayer is called forth by the Holy Spirit, who is mysteriously present in the heart of every person”.[86] Thus, the Pope acknowledged the active presence of the Holy Spirit in non-Christian religions. Also, in this address, he advocated that the Assisi meeting with the representatives of various world religions was “the visible expression” of the teaching of the Second Vatican Council concerning non-Christian religions, since, according to the Pope, this meeting verified the Council’s idea that all humanity has the same divine origin and non-Christian religions have some values.[87]

            In his letter to the Bishops of Asia in 1990, the Pope condemns those who adopt a pluralist theology of religions. As we will see in further chapters, the pluralist theologians such as  Hick, Smith and  Knitter argue that the Church or Christ or even Christianity is one way of salvation among many other ways.[88] The Pope rejects all these views by arguing that they contradict the Gospel message. In this letter he also maintains that to accept the possibility of salvation for non-Christians because of the hidden presence of Christ and the universal activity of the Spirit is not an obstacle to calling them to be members of the Church by being baptised.[89] 

2.4.3.   Pope John Paul II's Statements Concerning Muslims

            Besides his encyclicals and addresses, Pope John Paul II has visited a number of Muslim states and delivered a number of crucial speeches to the Muslim audiences during those visits. In those speeches the Pope usually tried to emphasise what Christians and Muslims have in common.[90] His most famous speech delivered on 19th of August in 1985 to Muslim youths in Casablanca, Morocco[91]  will be examined as an example. This speech would seem to cover most of the points mentioned in his other speeches.

            First of all, he reminded the youth that Christians and Muslims have many things in common as human beings and as believers in God. As human beings, he said, both Christians and Muslims live in the same world, a world that is “marked by many signs of hope, but also by multiple signs of anguish”. As believers, too, both Christians and Muslims “believe  in the same God, the one God, the living God, the God who created the world and his creatures to their perfection” by accepting Abraham as their model. This God wants all believers to respect every human being, by regarding him/her “as a friend, a companion, a brother” or sister; to help him/her “when he is wounded, when he is abandoned, when he is hungry and thirsty, in short, when he no longer knows where to find his direction on the pathways of life”.

            Secondly, after summarising the teaching of Vatican II, the Pope told the  youth that his coming to meet them was proof of the spirit of that teaching, in which the Church committed itself to seek collaboration among believers. For Christians and Muslims this collaboration or dialogue as well as joint witness to God “in a world which is becoming more and more secularised at times even atheistic”, is more necessary today than ever. He added that as believers both Christians and Muslims must give witness to the spiritual values which the world needs, such as the worship of God, “prayer of praise and supplication”, and the search for God’s will. This sort of witnessing, he maintained, should be carried out within the context of respect for others, since “everyone hopes to be respected for what he in fact is , and for what he conscientiously believes”.

            Thirdly, the Pope urged Muslim youth to combine their love, self-discipline and collaboration with others, and struggle against the ills of the world such as racism, misunderstanding, wars, injustice, and unemployment in order to build a better and peaceful world, a world of the twenty-first century.

            Lastly, he encouraged Christians to respect the religious approach of Muslims and recognise the richness of their religion by esteeming their own religion. The Pope finished his speech by praying “O God, author of  justice and peace, grant us true joy and authentic love, as a lasting fraternity among all peoples. Fill us with Your gifts for ever”.

            Recently, In his Crossing the Threshold of Hope [1994], Pope John Paul II reserves one chapter on Islam under the name "Muhammad?".  It is very strange that although he calls that chapter Muhammad with a question mark, he does not mention his status or role in Islamic faith. The most challenging part of this chapter is that, on the one hand,  the Pope expresses his deep respect and esteem of the religious life of Muslims as he did in his Redemptor Hominis by declaring:

The religiosity of Muslims deserves respect. It is impossible not to admire, for example, their fidelity to prayer. The image of believers in Allah who, without caring about time or place, fall to their knees and immerse themselves in prayer remains a model for all those who invoke the true God, in particular for those Christians who, having deserted their magnificent cathedrals, pray only a little or not all.[92]

But, on the other hand, he criticises the Muslim doctrine of God because of its rejection of the Christian teaching of God and doctrine of the Incarnation by arguing:

In Islam, all the richness of God’s self-revelation, which constitutes the heritage of the Old and New Testament, has definitely been set aside. He is ultimately a God outside of the world, God is only Majesty, never Emmanuel. Islam is not a religion of redemption. There is no room for the Cross and the Resurrection. Jesus is mentioned, but only as a prophet. The tragedy of redemption is completely absent. For this reason not only theology but also the anthropology of Islam is very different from Christianity.[93]

As can be seen in the first quotation, the Pope praises Muslims because of their loyalty to observing daily prayer and belief in God under any circumstances. In this sense it seems that he encourages Christians to follow their example. But, in the second one his attitude towards Islam seems rather negative. He strongly reproaches Islam for not accepting the Christian teaching of God. This quotation also implies that Christianity is superior to Islam. By criticising the Muslim doctrine of God the Pope moves away from the teaching of Nostra Aetate which praises that doctrine as observed in Chapter One, section 1.5.1.

            In short, as his predecessor Pope Paul VI, Pope John Paul II has also taken the teaching of Vatican II as the basis for his own teaching about non-Christians in general and Muslims in particular. On almost every occasion he recalls the conciliar statements by praising them. But, unlike Pope Paul VI he uses the term "dialogue" very often in his encyclicals and addresses both Christian and Muslim audiences by encouraging all people to come together to establish better relations with each other. In this sense, it can be said that this Pope has seen the dialogical approach as a necessity for better relations towards those who belong different religious traditions.

            Further, our examination shows that his teaching differs from Pope Paul VI with regard to  contexts and addressees. For example, when the practical issues such as peace, justice, and human welfare are mentioned the Pope employs very positive statements. He even calls non-Christians brothers or sisters. But when theological issues are discussed, his attitude becomes rather negative. With regard to the question of salvation Pope John Paul II strongly argues that there is only one way to salvation and that it is the Christian way namely through Jesus Christ. On the other hand, he tries to extend this exclusively Christian salvation to non-Christians by reference to the work of the Holy Spirit. He maintains that Jesus Christ is at work in non-Christian religions through the Spirit who is universally available and active in every religious tradition.

            Concerning his teaching about Muslims, we may say that while in most statements the Pope seems to go beyond the conciliar statements by calling Muslims brothers and sisters and praising their worship on every occasion, in some of his statements he seems to move away from the Council's positive attitude towards the Muslim doctrine of God.

            Briefly, from the theological point of view we may conclude that in his recent statements, such as Redemptoris Missio and Tertio Millennia Adveniente, Pope John Paul II seems to urge Christians to return to the pre-conciliar period in which non-Christians have been seen related to the Church by "implicit faith" or "baptism of desire" or as "anonymous Christians". In this sense, instead of going beyond the teaching of Vatican II, Pope John Paul gives the impression that he wants to go back to the pre-conciliar period. It could be argued that the most important reason for this negative development is the shift of Christian theology of religions from inclusivism to pluralism as is seen in the writings of some renowned theologians. 

            After examining the highly official Catholic Church's statements which were produced by the Popes, we will move to elaborate on less official Catholic statements which were developed by the Secretariat [Pontifical Council]. In doing so, we first of all will consider the significant points of Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims [1969,1981], before turning to examine two significant documents of the Pontifical Council namely Dialogue and Mission [1984]and Dialogue and Proclamation [1991].

2.5.            Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims

            As indicated above, the Secretariat published its first guidelines in 1969 and within ten years it became clear that those guidelines had played an important role in Christian-Muslim relations. For that reason the authorities of the Secretariat decided to bring out a new edition by taking into account new developments in Christian-Muslim relations. This new edition was produced by Fr. M. Borrmans in French and then translated and published in English in 1990, as has been noted in section 2.2.1. Although this Guidelines seems to be the work of Borrmans, it was authorised by the Pontifical Council. For that reason we consider it as an official statement.

            Some important points of these two guidelines should be noted. Cardinal Arinze, the President of Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, states that the main objective of these guidelines was "to provide a basic knowledge of Islamic beliefs and practices so that Christians may be better prepared to engage in dialogue with Muslims”.[94] Both of them affirm the absolute necessity of dialogue with Muslims, with the caution that their goal is not to “fix definite formulae for such a dialogue, but rather define the spirit in which it should take place”.[95]  The 1969 Guidelines states the general aim of the dialogue as a stimulation to “those taking part not to remain inert in the position they have adopted, but to help all concerned to find a way to become better people in themselves and to improve their relations with one another.…”[96] The 1981 Guidelines remarked that “true dialogue involves the bold venture of individuals who wish to be enriched by their differences, to share their common values, and to respond as individuals to the calls the Lord addresses to each one most intimately”.[97]

            Without going into detail[98] concerning the content of these guidelines, we would  like to point out their most significant points concerning the development of Christian-Muslim dialogue. These are their statements about Islam as a religion and  the Prophet Muhammad. These two points were ignored in the conciliar statements as noted in the first chapter.

            The first point is that Islam is regarded as a religious system which Muslims follow during their lives. The 1969 Guidelines defined Islam “as a faith, as progress towards God and the final realisation of all man’s potentialities”.[99] Troll rightly pointed out that Christians can  “esteem” and “respect” Muslims only if they consider Islam “first of all as a faith”.[100] The 1981 Guidelines, too, consider Islam “as a monotheistic and prophetic religion having ties--not yet well defined--with the Judeo-Christian tradition, and as a faith in which the Abrahamic model of faith and submission to God is upheld in all its implications”.[101] But, as Troll indicates these Guidelines abstain from giving details in this issue.[102]

            The second point concerns the Christians’ view of the Prophet Muhammad. On this issue the 1981 Guidelines urge Christians to leave aside negative and prejudiced judgements which come from past polemics and apologetics. It says that

Christians should assess an objective way, and in consonance with their faith, exactly what was the inspiration, the sincerity and the faithfulness of the Prophet Muhammad, making their judgement within the framework, first, of his personal response to the commands of God, and then on a wider scale, that of the working of providence in world history.[103]

Although, here, for the first time the Catholic Church officially speaks of Muhammad as a prophet, this should not be understood that the Church acknowledges the prophethood of Muhammad as Muslims do. Later these Guidelines are seen to regard Muhammad, on the other hand, as a “great literary, political and religious genius", who possessed particular qualities which enabled him to lead multitudes to the worship of the true God. On the other hand, the Guidelines suggest that Christians can find “evidence of certain mistakes and important misapprehensions” in his teaching.[104]

            Further, the Guidelines remark that Christians can find some elements of prophethood by saying, “His faith in the One God is a constant of his message and of his life his call for justice and for human dignity is a cry that cannot be silenced”. They finish by encouraging Christians to use the statement of the Patriarch Timothy of Baghdad in their evaluation of the prophethood of Muhammad. “‘Muhammad followed the way of the prophets for he surely conformed to their example, without, however, corresponding fully to the One whom they foretold”.[105]

            The views of individual scholars on the prophethood of Muhammad have influenced the Catholic Church's view of the Prophet: the statements used in these Guidelines concerning the status of the Prophet Muhammad  are similar to those of individual scholars such as Watt, Cragg and Küng.[106]

2.6.       The Documents of the Secretariat concerning the Relationship             between Mission, Proclamation and Dialogue

            As has been observed in the previous chapter, the conciliar statements, the activities of the Secretariat, the statements of Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II, and the Guidelines for Dialogue all have urged Christians to enter into dialogue with non-Christians by listening to, and learning from, them. This openness to other religions caused some anxieties and ambiguities about the mission policy of the Catholic Church in the minds of both Christians and non-Christians. While some Church authorities considered dialogue an alternative to mission, some non-Christians regarded dialogue as a new missionary policy of the Catholic Church with conversion as its focus. 

            Our main objective in studying the significant documents of the Pontifical Council concerning the relationship between mission, dialogue and proclamation is to observe what the Church authorities have done to remove the anxieties of both Christians and non-Christians concerning the function of dialogue. When the authorities of the Pontifical Council began to discuss the relationship between dialogue, mission and proclamation in its various plenary meetings they produced two significant documents, namely, Dialogue and Mission [1984] and Dialogue and Proclamation [1991]. The essential points of these two documents with regard to interreligious dialogue can be summarised as follows.

2.6.1.            Dialogue and Mission 

            The main objectives of the promulgation of this document are spelled out as follows: To reflect on the Church's experiences of interreligious dialogue over 20 years[107];  to offer solutions to "difficulties which can arise from the duties of evangelisation and dialogue which are found in the mission of the Church";[108] and to help people of other faiths to understand more accurately the Church's approach towards them in the process of dialogue.[109]

            In the promulgation of this document, Pope John Paul II considers dialogue as a fundamental duty of the Church for the following reasons: God is the Father of the entire human family; Jesus Christ has joined every person to himself; and the Holy Spirit works in each individual.[110] The Pope considers this dialogue as a dialogue of salvation because it finds its place within the Church’s salvific mission. He urges Christians to carry out this duty by avoiding “exclusivism and dichotomies”, since according to him “authentic dialogue becomes a witness and true evangelization is accomplished by respecting and listening to one another”.

            In the first section, the document describes  mission as a special activity through which the Church makes itself fully present among peoples. It states that this missionary function of the Church includes "the simple presence and living witness of the Christian life";[11