1 For these factors see Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 1983), pp.1ff; John Hick, The Rainbow of Faiths (London: SCM Press, 1995), pp. 12-13; Daniel B. Clendenin, Many Gods Many Lords; Christianity Encounters World Religions (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995), pp. 18-29; Charles Kimball, Striving Together: A Way Forward in Christian-Muslim Relations (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), pp.48-56.

 2 Wilfred C. Smith, The Faith of Other Men (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1972), p. 11.

 3 Hick, "Foreword", in Smith’s Meaning and End of Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), p. vi.

 4 See Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism, pp. ix-x; Hans Küng, et al., eds., Christianity and World Religions; Paths of Dialogue with Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1993 first published in 1986), p.xiii; Frank Whaling, Christian Theology and World Religions: A Global Approach (London: Marshall Pickering, 1986), p. 5ff; David Tracy, Dialogue with the Other: The Interreligious Dialogue (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), p. 90; W.C. Smith outlines the nature of the challenge of this new age for Christian theologians as follows: "From now on any serious intellectual statement of the Christian faith must include, if it is to serve its purposes among men, some doctrine of other religions."(Smith, Faith of Other Men, p. 133).

 5 Diana Eck identifies six different kinds of interreligious activity that are presently described as dialogue. These are: Parliamentary Dialogue, Institutional Dialogue, Theological Dialogue, Dialogue in Community, Spiritual Dialogue, Inner Dialogue and Literary Dialogue (Diana Eck, "What Do We Mean by ‘Dialogue’? A Survey of Types of Interreligious Dialogue Today", CD, 11(1986), pp. 5-15.

 6 See Robert B. Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church Since Vatican II; An Historical and Theological Study (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1987).

 7 Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism; Arnulf Camps, Patterns in Dialogue: Christianity and Other Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1983); Paul Knitter, No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes Towards the World Religions (London: SCM Press, 1985); Harold Coward, Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1985); Gavin D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Whaling, Christian Theology and World Religions; Michael Barnes, Religions in Conversation: Christian Identity and Religious Pluralism (London: SPCK, 1989); Glyn Richards, Towards a Theology of Religions (London: Routledge, 1989).

 8 Küng, Global Responsibility: In Search of a New World Ethic (London: SCM Press, 1990).

 9 See Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, (London: Macmillan, 1997); Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997).

 10 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Comments on a Few Theological Issues in Islamic-Christian Dialogue", in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad & Wadi Z. Haddad, eds., Christian-Muslim Encounter (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1995), pp. 457-467.

 11 Samuel P. Huntington, "A Clash of Civilisations", FA, 72/3 (1993), pp. 48-69; also see J. Moltmann & H. Küng, "Editorial: Islam-A Challenge to Christianity", in Küng & Moltmann, eds., Islam: A Challenge for Christianity, Concilium (London: SCM Press, 1994), pp. vii-viii.

 12 See, Philip Rees, "World Apart", NS, August (1997), p. 32-34.

 13 Such accounts can be seen in ex-prime minister and former President Turgut Özal’s understanding of the relationship between Turkey and Europe (Turgut Özal, Turkey in Europe and Europe in Turkey, (Lefkose: Rustem and Brother, 1991).

 14 Isaac H. Victor, The Emerging Christian Theologies of Islam: A South Asian Christian Evaluation of the Documents of SVC, the WCC and the Lausanne Covenant Programmes, unpublished PhD thesis, (Birmingham: CSIC, 1988), pp. 163-164.

 15 For similar questions see Mikka Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions According to the Second Vatican Council (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992), p.10; Geoarges C. Anawati, "Excursus on Islam", in H. Vorgrimler, ed., Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II, v.3 (London: 1969), p.151-155; Christian Troll, "Changing Catholic Views of Islam", to be published in J. Waardenburg, ed., Christianity and Islam: Mutual Perceptions since the Mid-20th Century (Kampen: Kok Agora), p.2.

 16 Joseph Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims: The Church’s Consideration of Islam in Vatican II and its Resonance in Subsequent Christian-Muslim Relations (Roma: Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, 1987), p.12.

 17 Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 10.

 18 Hans Küng, The Church (London: Search Press, 1978 first published in 1968), pp. 313ff; Küng, "The World Religions in God’s Plan of Salvation", in J. Neuner, ed., Christian Revelation and World Religions (London: Burns and Oates, 1967), p. 31; also see Molly T. Marshall, No Salvation Outside the Church? A Critical Inquiry (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1993), pp. 11ff.

 19 Francis A. Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church: Tracing The History of the Catholic Church Response (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), p. 18.

 20 Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, pp. 18-19.

 21 Kurien Kunnumpuram, Ways of Salvation: The Salvific Meaning of Non-Christian Religions According to the Second Vatican Council (Poona: Pontifical Athenaeum, 1971), p. 13.

 22 Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, p. 23.

 23 Knitter, No Other Name?, p. 121.

 24 Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, p. 27.

 25 Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, p. 35.

 26 Sullivan, The Church We Believe In, One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic (New York: Paulist Press, 1989), p.113.

 27 J. Neuner & J. Dupuis, eds., The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church (Banglore: Theological Publication in India, 1996), p. 16.

 28 Neuner & Dupuis, The Christian Faith, p. 281.

 29 Neuner & Dupuis, The Christian Faith, pp. 383-384.

 30 See Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, pp. 69ff.

 31 Neuner& Dupuis, The Christian Faith, p. 386.

 32 Neuner& Dupuis, The Christian Faith, pp. 300-301.

 33 In this case, Archbishop Feeney was excommunicated by the Pope because of his insistence on a literal interpretation and application of the dogma "outside the Church there is no salvation," along the lines of the Council of Florence by defining a dogma of faith, and anyone who denies it, or waters it down, is guilty of heresy. This literal understanding of the traditional dogma means that there is no possibility of salvation for those who do not live and die as a Roman Catholic. (Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, pp. 135-136).

 34 Neuner and Dupuis, The Christian Faith, p. 306. Pope Pius XII declared that, "To gain eternal salvation it is not always required that a person be incorporated in reality (reapse) as a member of the Church, but it is required that one belong to it at least in desire and longing (voto et desiderio). It is not necessary that this desire be explicit. When one is invincibly ignorant, God also accepts an implicit desire, so called because it is contained in the good disposition of soul by which a person wants his or her will to be conformed to God’s will".

 35 Hick, God and Universe of Faiths (Oxford: Oneworld, 1993 first published in 1973), p. 124.

 36 See Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, p. 82ff.

 37 Concerning the life of Massignon, see Giulio Basetti-Sani, Louis Massignon (1883-1962) Christian Ecumenist; Prophet of Inter-Religious Reconciliation (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1974); Herbert Mason, Testimonies and Reflections; Essays of Louis Massignon (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1989); Bert Breiner, "Louis Massignon-An Interpretive Essay", Newsletter, CSIC, 14 (1985), pp. 19-26.

 38 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "In Commemoration of Louis Massignon: Catholic Scholar, Islamicist and Mystic", in Presence de Louis Massignon; Hommages et temoignages (Paris: Editions Maisonneuve Et Larose, 1987), p. 55.

 39 Basetti Sani, Louis Massignon (1883-1962) Christian Ecumenist, pp. 91-92.

 40 Basetti Sani, Louis Massignon (1883-1962) Christian Ecumenist, p. 110.

 41 Pierre Rocalve, Louis Massignon et L’Islam (Damas: Institut Francais De Damas), 1993, pp. 37-43.

 42 Troll, "Changing Catholic Views of Islam", p. 10.

 43 Rocalve, Louis Massignon et L’Islam, pp. 45-49.

 44 See Karl-Josef Kuschel, Abraham; A Symbol of Hope for Jews, Christians and Muslims (London: SCM Press), 1995, p. 219.

 45 Caspar, Traite De Theologie Musulmane: Histoire De la Pensée Religieuse Musulmane, Tome 1 (Rome: P.I.S.A.I, 1987), p. 80.

 46 Troll, "Islam and Christianity Interacting in the Life of an Outstanding Christian Scholar of Islam: the case of Louis Massignon (1883-1962)", IMA, 15 (1984), pp. 163-164.

 47 Troll, "Islam and Christianity Interacting in the Life of an Outstanding Christian Scholar of Islam", p. 165; also see Caspar, Traite De Theologie Musulmane, p. 81; Neal Robinson, "Massignon, Vatican II and Islam: As an Abrahamic Religion", ICMR, 2/2 (1991), pp. 182-205.

 48 See Maurice Boutin, "Anonymous Christianity: A Paradigm for Interreligious Encounter", JES, 20 (1983), pp. 602-629.

 49 See William V. Dych, Karl Rahner, Oustanding Christian Thinkers Series (London: Geoffrey Chapman), 1992, pp.12-13.

 50 Karl Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", Theological Investigations, v.5 (London: Longman& Todd, 1966).

 51 These writings are: Rahner, "Anonymous Christians" in Theological Investigations, v.6 (London: Longman & Todd, 1969), pp. 390-398; Rahner, "Anonymous Christianity and the Missionary Task of the Church", in Theological Investigations, v.12 (London: Longman & Todd, 1974), pp.161-178; Rahner, "Observations on the Problem of the ‘Anonymous Christian’" in Theological Investigations, v.14 (London: Longman & Todd, 1976), pp. 280-298; Rahner, "Anonymous Christianity and Explicit Faith" in Theological Investigations, v. 16 (London: Longman & Todd, 1979), pp. 52-59; Rahner, "Jesus Christ in the Non-Christian Religions", in Theological Investigations, v. 17 (London: Longman & Todd, 1981), pp. 39-50; Rahner, "On the Importance of the Non-Christian Religions for Salvation", in Theological Investigations, v. 18 (London: Longman & Todd, 1984), pp. 288-295.

 52 Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 29.

 53 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 131.

 54 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 121.

 55 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 117.

 56 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 118.

 57 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 121; A lawful religion means here an institutional religion whose ‘use’ by man at a certain period of time can be regarded on the whole as a positive means of gaining the right relationship to God and, thus, for the attaining of salvation, a means which is therefore positively included in God’s plan of salvation.(p. 125).

 58 See Roger Haight, The Experience and Language of Grace (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp.122-126.

 59 Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism, p. 47.

 60 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p. 131.

 61 Rahner, "Christianity and Non-Christian Religions", p.133.

 62 See "Declaration on the Relation of the Church to the Non-Christian Religions", in A. Flannery, ed., Vatican Council II; The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents (Dublin: Dominican Publication, 1975, pp. 738-742.

 63 See "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church", in Flannery, ed., Vatican Council II, pp. 350-423.

 64 Thomas Stransky, "The Church and Other Religions", IBMR, 9 (1985), p. 154.

 65 John M. Oestereicher, "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions; Introduction and Commentary", in H. Vorgrimler, ed., Commentary on the Documents of the Second Vatican Council, v. 3 (London: 1969), pp. 17-18; Tamara Sonn, "The Dialogue between Islam and the Judeo-Christian Tradition" in C. Wei-hsun and G. E. Spiegler, eds., An Analysis and Sourcebook of Developments Since 1945; Religious Issues and Interreligious Dialogues (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), p. 440.

 66 Stransky, "The Church and Other Religions", p. 155; Sonn, "The Dialogue between Islam and the Judeo-Christian Tradition" pp. 440-441; also see Reinhard Neudecker, "The Catholic Church and the Jewish People", in R. Latourelle, ed., Vatican II Assessment and Perspectives Twenty Years After (1962-1987), v.3 (New York: Paulist Press), 1989, pp. 283-323;

 67 Robert Caspar, "Islam According to Vatican II: On the Tenth Anniversary of Nostra Aetate", Encounter, 21 (1976), p. 1.

 68 Oesterreicher, "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", p. 122-123.

 69 Caspar, "Islam According to Vatican II", p. 2.

 70 Ruokanen, "Catholic Teaching on Non-Christian Religions at the Second Vatican Council", IBMR, 9(1985), p. 56.

 71 See Oesterreicher, "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", p. 129; Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in Catholic Church Since Vatican II, p. 28.

 72 Roukanen, Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 42.

 73 Stransky, "The Church and Other Religions", p. 157.

 74 Nostra Aetate 1:1

 75 Roukanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 7.

 76 Nostra Aetate 1:1.

 77 Nostra Aetate 1:1.

 78 Nostra Aetate 5:1-3.

 79 See Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, pp. 50-51.

 80 Nostra Aetate 1:2; When we look at the book of "Revelation" in the New Testament, we encounter the similar passage dealing with the eschatological vision of the nations (Revelation.21,22). According to K. Cracknell, the expressions of this passage deal with the eschatology of nations and peoples and challenge the theologies which speak of the eschatology of a single people, and which suggest that God has but one single pattern of working in his saving action toward humankind. If God wants to save all nations and so He is at work in various ways to do this, Christians have to accept that their partners in the process of dialogue have truth in their holy books and their religious traditions are valid. (K. Cracknell, Towards A New Relationship, Christians and People of Other Faith (London:Epwort Press, 1987), pp. 51-52).

 81 Nostra Aetate 2:2

 82 Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, pp.59-60.

 83 Ad Gentes 8:1.

 84 Lumen Gentium 35:4.

 85 Lumen Gentium 25:1.

 86 Nostra Aetate 4:6; Ruokanen, Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 60; also see Pietro Rossano, "Christ’s Lordship and Religious Pluralism in Roman Catholic Perspective", in G.H. Anderson & T.F. Stransky, eds., Christ’s Lordship & Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981), pp. 96-110; Paul Hacker, "The Christian Attitude Toward Non-Christian Religions: Some Critical and Positive Reflections", ZMR, 2 (1971), pp. 81-97.

 87 Ruokanen,The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, p. 61; Ruokanen, "Catholic Teaching on Non-Christian Religions", p. 58.

 88 Lumen Gentium 16:1.

 89 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, pp. 21-22.

 90 Nostra Aetate 2:3

 91 Nostra Aetate 2:3.

 92 See Ruokanen, Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions, pp. 86-87.

 93 Nostra Aetate 3:1.

 94 Lumen Gentium 16:1.

 95 In the medieval age, it was claimed that Muslims were idolaters, because they did not worship one God but a false trinity which consisted of Tervagan, Muhammad, and Apollo (R.W. Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Harward Unv. Press, 1962), p. 32; Albert Hourani, Europe and Middle East (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. 9; Thomas Michael, "Christianity and Islam; Reflections on Recent Teachings of the Church", Encounter, 112 (1985), p. 3.

 96 Related Qur’anic verses see Qur’an 1:3; 2:255; 112:1ff; Concerning the common points of Christian and Muslim doctrine of God see Maurice Borrmans, "The Doctrinal Basis Common to Christians and Muslims and Different Areas of Convergence in Action", JES, 14/1 (1977).

 97 Caspar, "Islam According to Vatican II; 1-7; see, Qur’an 2:255.

 98 Borrmans, "The Muslim-Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", PMVB 74 (1978), p. 12.

 99 Borrmans, "The Muslim-Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", p. 12.

 100 David Thomas, "A Christian Theology of Islam", unpublished essay, CSIC, Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, p. 1-10.

 101 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 40.

 102 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 40.

 103 See Willem Bijlefield, "The Danger of ‘Christianizing’ our Partners in Dialogue", MW, 57(1967), pp. 172-177; Charles Adams, "Islamic Religious Tradition", in Leonard Binder, ed., The Study of the Middle East: Research and Scholarship in the Humanities and the Social Sciences (New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1976), pp. 29-95.

 104 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 63.

 105 Anawati, "Excurcus on Islam", pp. 151-153.

 106 See Nasr, " Response to Hans Küng" in MW, 77 (1987), pp. 96-102.

 107 Küng, Christianity and the World religions, p. 27

 108 Anawati, "Excursus on Islam", p. 153.

 109 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 41.

 110 Nostra Aetate 3:1.

 111 Lumen Gentium 16:1

 112 See Qur’an 6:120-123.

 113 Borrmans, "The Muslim-Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", p. 12; also see Caspar, "Islam according to Vatican II", p. 5.

 114 Caspar, "Islam according to Vatican II", p. 5.

 115 For Massignon see section 1. 3.1.

 116 Anawati, "Excurcus on Islam", p. 153.

 117 See Qur’an 3: 65-67.

 118 Borrmans, "The Muslim Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", p. 12.

 119 Caspar, "Islam according to Vatican II", p. 5; for further information about Christian and Muslim perception of Abraham see, Kuschel, Abraham.

 120 Nostra Aetate 3:1.

 121 The Anglican Bishop and Islamicist, Kenneth Cragg, expresses his sadness concerning the Muslim perception of Jesus as a prophet by stating that "In conforming Christ to its own conception of the successful prophet, Islam has robbed him of himself, transformed him into an unrecognisable Jesus". (Kennth Cragg, Call of Minaret (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), pp. 261-262).

 122 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 45.

 123 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 49.

 124 Nostra Aetate 3:1.

 125 Troll, "Changing Catholic Views of Islam", p. 8.

 126 Caspar, "Islam according to Vatican II", p.5.

 127 Borrmans, "The Muslim-Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", p. 13.

 128 Nostra Aetate 3:1.

 129 Borrmans, "The Muslim-Christian Dialogue in the Last Ten Years", pp. 12-13

 130 See Chapter Two section 2.3 and 2.4.3.

 131 Caspar, "La religione musulmane", p. 228 cited in Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 56.

 132 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 56.

 133 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 57.

 134 Caspar, "Islam according to Vatican II", p. 6; also see Anawati, "An Assesment of the Christia-Islamic Dialogue", in K. C. Ellis, ed., The Vatican, Islam, and the Middle East (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987), pp. 51-68.

 135 Ary A. Roest Crollius, "The Church Looks at Muslims", in Latourelle, ed., Vatican II Assessment and Perspectives Twenty Years After (1962-1987), p. 327.

 136 Lumen Gentium 16:1.

 137 Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christians, p. 78; Concerning this point, Crollius incorrectly argues that the Council’s appreciation of Muslims’ doctrinal, religious and moral elements could not be used "as arguments to prove that the plan of salvation also embrace Muslims", since it clearly contradicts the Council statement itself (Crollius, "The Church Looks at Muslims", p. 327)

 138 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 62.

 139 Nostra Aetate 3:2.

 140 Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, p. 55.

 141 Caspar, Traite de Theologie Musulmans, p. 87.

 142 As we will see in the next chapter, the relatioship between dialogue and proclamation has been discussed by the Catholic authorities in the post-conciliar period (see Chapter Two section 2.6.)

 143 Nostra Aetate 1:2.

 144 Lumen Gentium 14:1.

 145 Lumen Gentium 14:2.

 146 Lumen Gentium 9:1.

 147 Lumen Gentium 14:1.

 148 Lumen Gentium 16:1.

 149 See Kuschel, Abraham, pp. 134ff.

 150 Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christians, pp. 99-100.

 151 See section 1.3.1.

 152 Gaudium et spes 22:5.

 153 Gaudium et spes. 29:1; Ruokanen, Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christians, pp. 95-96.

 154 Ad Gentes Divinitus 7:1.

 155 Lumen Gentium 14.

 156 Knitter, "Roman Catholic Approaches to Other Religions: Developments and Tensions", IBMR, 8(1984), pp. 50-54; also see Knitter, "Interpreting Silence: A Response To Mikka Ruokanen", IBMR, 14(1990), pp. 62-63; Stransky, "The Church and Other Religions", pp. 154-158; David Wright, "The Watershed of Vatican II: Catholic Attitudes towards Other Religions", in A.D. Clarke & B.W. Winter, eds., One God One Lord; In a World of Religious Pluralism (Cambridge: Tyndale House, 1991), pp. 153-171.

 157 Ruokanen, "Catholic Teaching on Non-Christian Religions", pp. 57.

 158 Knitter, "Interpreting Silence: A Response to Mikka Ruokanen", p. 62.

 159 Farrugia, Vatican II and The Muslims, p. 15; also see, Kunnumpuram, Ways of Salvation, p. 91; James Dupuis, "The Salvific Value of Non-Christian Religions", in M. Dhavamony, ed., Evangelization, Dialogue and Development, Documenta Missionalia 5 (Roma: Universita Gregoriana Editrice, 1972), pp. 169-194.

 160 Nostra Aetate 2.

 161Ad Gentes Divinitus 11: 1; 41:5.

 162 Ad Gentes Divinitus 9.

 163 Lumen Gentium 16.

 164 Gaudium et spes 92:4.

 165 Nostra Aetate 2:2; see also J. Dupuis, Jesus Christ Encounter at the World Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), pp. 137-138; Kunnumpuram, Ways of Salvation, p. 65-66.

 166 See Ad Gentes Divinitus 13:1; 15:8; 39:1; 40:2.

 167 Ad gentes Divinitus .9; Lumen Gentium 17

 168 Nostra Aetate 2:2-3.

 169 Farrugia, Vatican II and the Muslims, p. 70.

 170 Kuschel, Abraham, p. 216.

 171 Hans Zirker, Islam: Theologische und Gesellschaftliche Herausforderung (Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag, 1993), p. 27 cited in Kuschel, Abraham, p. 217; also see Troll, "Christianity and Islam: Mutual Challenges: Hans Zirker’s recent work on Islam", OCP, 61 (1995)., pp. 571-580.

 172 Redmond Fitzmaurice, "The Roman Catholic Church and Interreligious Dialogue: Implications for Christian-Muslim Relations", ICMR, 3/1(1992), p. 92; Fitzmaurice, What Will the Third Vatican Council have to say about Relations between Christians and People of other Faiths, Occasional Paper 14, (Birmingham: Selly Oak Colleges, 1997).

 174 Concerning the history of the Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions and the development of Roman Catholic teaching on Intereligious dialogue, see Pietro Rossano, "The Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions from the Beginnings to the Present Day: History, Ideas, Problems", Bulletin, 41-42(1979), pp. 88-109; Francis A. Arinze, "Prospects of Evangelization with Reference to the Area of Non-Christian Religions, Bulletin, 59 (111-140; Jean L. Jadot, "The Growth in the Roman Catholic Commitment to Interreligious Dialogue Since Vatican II", JES, 20/3 (1983), pp. 365-378; Michael Fitzgerald, "The Secretariat for Non-Christians is 10 Years Old", Islamochristiana, 1 (1975), pp. 87-96; Fitzgerald, "25 Years of Dialogue: The Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue", Islamochristiana, 15 (1989), pp. 109-120; Aylward Shorter, "The Secretariat For Non-Christians", in Hastings, ed., Modern Catholicism: Vatican II and After (London: SPCK, 1991), pp. 185-187; James H. Kroeger, "Milestones in Interreligious Dialogue", World Mission, August (1997), pp. 22-26.

 175 Secretariat For Non-Christian Religions, "The Attitude of the Church towards Other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission", Bulletin, 56 (1984), p. 127.

 176 Paulo Marella, "Nature, Presuppositions and Limits of Dialogue with Non-Christian Religions", Bulletin, 10 (1969), p. 9.

 177 Marella, "Nature, Presuppositions and the Limits of Dialogue with Non-Christians", pp. 9-10;

 178 Fitzgerald, "The Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions", p. 91.

 179 Fitzgerald, "The Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions", p. 93.

 180 Towards the Meetings of religions: Suggestions for Dialogue, General Section, The Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions (Vatican City: Polyglot, 1967); The Secretariat For Non-Christian Religions, Guidelines For A Dialogue between Muslims and Christians (Rome, 1969)); Meeting the African Religions, The Secretariat For Non-Christian Religions (Rome, 1969).

 181 Sheard, Inter-religious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 53.

 182 Sheard, Inter-religious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 56.

 183 Guidelines For A Dialogue Between Muslims and Christians, pp. 7-8.

 184 Guidelines For A Dialogue BetweenMuslims and Christians, pp. 34-35.

 185 Meeting the African Religions, pp. 124-125.

 186 Meeting the African Religions, , pp. 124-125.

 187 Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 80-81.

 188 "Recommendation of the Four Section addressed to the Secretariat", Bulletin, 18(1971), p. 213-214

 189 Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 101.

 190 Pontifical Council For Inter-religious Dialogue, Recognise The Spiritual Bonds Which Unite Us, 16 years of Christian Muslim Dialogue (Rome: 1994), p.49.

 191 Rossano, "The Secretariat For Non-Christian Religions", pp. 96-97.

 192 "Text of the final declaration of the Tripoli Seminar", Bulletin, 31 (1976), p. 14.

 193 "Text of the final declaration of the Tripoli Seminar", p. 14.

 194 "Text of the Final Declaration of the Tripoli Seminar", p. 17.

 195 "Report on the ‘Seminar on Islamic-Christian Dialogue’ held in Tripoli (1st-5th February 1976", Bulletin, 31 (1976), p. 9.

 196 "Text of the Final Declaration of the Tripoli Seminar", p.19.

 197 Concerning the establishment of this research group see Islamochristiana, 4 (1978), pp. 175-186; Muslim-Christian Research Group, The Challenge of the Scriptures: The Bible and the Qur’an (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1989), pp. 1-7.

 198 Recognizing the Spiritual Bonds, p.50.

 199 Fitzgerald, "Twenty-five Years of Dialogue", p. 115.

 200 This revised version was prepared by Borrmans and published by the Secretariat in French in 1981 under the name of Orinetations pour un Dialogue entre Chretiens et Musulmans and was translated into English by R. Marston Speight under the name of Guidelines for Dialogue between Christian and Muslims and published by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue in 1990 (Borrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims (New York: Paulist Press, 1990).

 201 Sesretariat for Non-Christian Religions, "The Attitude of the Church towards the Followers of Other Religions. Reflections and orientations on dialogue and mission", Bulletin, 56 (1984), pp.126-141.

 202 Recognize The Spiritual Bonds, p.70-71; Fitzgerald, "Twenty-five years of Dialogue", p. 116.

 203 See Islamochristiana 16 (1990), pp. 220-221.

 204 See Islamochristiana 18 (1992), pp. 318-321.

 205 See Islamochristiana, 20 (1994), p. 323.

 206 See Islamochristiana, 16 (1990), pp. 294-295.

 207 See Co-existence between Religions: Reality and Horizons, A Consultation between Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue and World Islamic Call Society (Rome: Vatican Polyglot Press, 1990).

 208 See Islamochristiana, 20 (1994), p. 242.

 209 See Islamochristiana, 21 (1995), p. 172.

 210 Arinze, "The Way Ahead for Muslims and Christians", Pro Dialogo, 91 (1996), p. 27.

 211 Arinze, "The Way Ahead for Muslims and Christians", p. 28.

 212 Pontifical Council For Interreligious Dialogue, "Dialogue and Proclamation. Reflections and Orientations on Interreligious Dialogue and the Proclamation of the Gospel of Jesus Christ", Bulletin 77 (1991), pp. 201-250.

 213 For detail information about these plenary assemblies, see Bulletin 82, 28/1(1993), pp. 1-98 and Pro Dialogo, 92/2 (1996), pp. 153-274.

 214 We will examine the related statements of this encyclical below.

 215 Fitzgerald, "Plenary Assembly 1995: An Overview", Pro Dialogo, 92/2 (1996), pp. 150-152.

 216 Fitzgerald, "Plenary Assembly 1995", p. 150.

 217 Pope Paul VI, Paths of the Church, Ecclesiam Suam, Encyclical Letter of Paul VI (Boston: St. Paul Books& Media).

 218 Pope Paul VI, "Evangelii Nuntiandi", in M. Walsh & B. Davies, eds., Proclaiming Justice and Peace (London: Collins), pp. 204-242.

 219 Recognize the Spiritual Bonds, p. 7.

 220 Dupuis, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions, p. 240.

 221 Ecclesiam Suam 70ff.

 222 Ecclesiam Suam 108.

 223 Ecclesiam Suam 81.

 224 Ecclesiam Suam 66.

 225 Ecclesiam Suam 107.

 226 Ecclesiam Suam. 88.

 227 See Mariasusai Dhavamony, "Evangelization and Dialogue in Vatican II and in the 1974 Synod", in Latourelle, ed., Vatican II Assessment and Perspectives Twenty Years After (1962-1987), pp.264-281.

 228 Evangelii Nuntiandi 53.

 229 See Dhavamony, "Evangelization and Dialogue in Vatican II and in the 1974 Synod", p. 278.

 230 Evangelii Nuntiandi 53:2-3.

 231 L’Osservatore Romano, March 23 (1966), p. 1.

 232 Sullivan, Salvation outside the Church, pp. 186-187.

 233 In that article Danielou says that "The religions are a gesture of man towards God; revelation is the witness of a gesture of God towards man. The religions are creations of human genius; they witness to the value of exalted religious personalities, such as Buddha, Zoroaster, Orpheus. But they also have the defects of what is human. Revelation is the work of God alone. Religion expresses man’s desire for God. Revelation witnesses that God has responded to that desire. Religion does not save. Jesus Christ grants salvation (Jean Danielou, "Christianisme et religions non-chretienes", Etudes, 312 (1964), pp. 323-336 cited in Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church, p. 187).

 234 Küng, "The World Religions in God’s Plan of Salvation", pp. 25-66.

 235 Evangelii Nuntiandi 80:2.

 236 Evangelii Nuntiandi 80.

 237 For Pope Paul VI’s statements concerning Muslims see, Pope Paul VI, "To the Representatives of Muslims in Turkey", in Francesco Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue: The Official Teaching of the Catholic Church 1963-1995 (Boston: Pauline Books & Media, 1997, pp. 149-150; "To the Islamic Community of Uganda", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 164-165; "To the New Ambassador of Pakistan", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, p. 168; "To the Faithful of Indenesia", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 176-177.

 238 Encyclical Redemptor Hominis of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul, Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops (Ottowa, 1980).

 239 Pope John Paul II, "Redemptor Mission: An Encyclical Letter on the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate", W.R. Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue; Reading Redemprotis Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll : Orbis Books, 1993), pp. 3-55.

 240 Redemptor Hominis 6:3.

 241 Redemptor Hominis 11:2.

 242 Redemptor Hominis 11:2.

 243 Redemptor Hominis 12.

 244 Redemptoris Missio 4:3.

 245 Redemptoris Missio 55:1.

 246 Redemptoris Missio 55:3.

 247 Eric J. Sharpe, "Mission between Dialogue and Proclamation", in Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue, pp. 161-172.

 248 Redemptoris Missio 56.

 249 Redemptoris Missio 57.

 250 Redemptoris Missio 5:1.

 251 Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names: Christian Mission and Global Responsibility (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996), p. 133; Redemptoris Missio 5:4.

 252 Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names, p. 133.

 253 Redemptoris Missio 10.

 254 See Rahner, "Christianity and the Non-Christians Religions", pp. 115-134.

 255 Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, p. 108.

 256 Pope John Paul II, "Address to the Leaders of Other Religions", in Neuner & Dupuis, eds., The Christian Faith, pp. 409-410.

 257 The Pope convened religious leaders around the world in Assisi on October 27, 1986 in order to pray for world peace. The primary purpose of this meeting was to display to the entire world a commitment to peace and to do so in religious way (see Bulletin, 22 (1987), pp. 11-160; A. Camps, "The Prayers for Peace at Assisi, October 27, 1986: What was Shared", eds. Jerald D. Gort et al., On Sharing Religious Experience; Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), pp. 255-266; Francis Arinze, "The Engagement of the Catholic Church in Interreligious Dialogue since Assisi 1986", Pro Dialogo, 95/2 ( 1997), pp. 204-212).

 258 Pope John Paul II, "Address to the Roman Curia", in Neuner & Dupuis, eds., The Christian Faith, p. 411.

 259 Pope John Paul II, "Address to the Roman Curia", p. 414.

 260 See chapter six concerning the pluralist understanding of Jesus and salvation.

 261 Pope John Paul, "Letter to the Bishops of Asia", in Neuner & Dupuis, eds., The Christian Faith, p. 415.

 262 Concerning the Pope’s speeches to Muslim audiences, see Pope John Paul II, "To the Catholic Community of Ankara (11.29.1979)", in Gioia, ed. Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 219-222; "To the Muslim Leaders of Kenya (Nairobi, May 7, 1980)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 226-227; "To the Leaders of Ghanaian Muslims (Accra, May 8, 1980)" in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, p. 229; "To the Representatives of the Muslim Community in France (Paris, May 31, 1980)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 233-234; "To the People of Pakistan (Karachi, February 16, 1981)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 234-235; "To the Representative of Muslims of the Philippines (Davao, February 20, 1981)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 235-237; "To the Representatives of the Muslims of Belgium (Brussels, May 19, 1985)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 284-285; "To the Professors from Turkey in Rom (Rome, May 12, 1989), in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 4030404; "Message to All Muslims in Favor of Lebanon (Rome, September 7, 1989)", pp. 416-417; "To the Participants in a ‘Colloquium between Christians and Muslims’ (Rome, December 7, 1989)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 424-425; "Message to the Faithful of Islam at the End of the Month of Ramadan (Rome, April 3, 1991)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 451-543; "To the Islamic Leaders of Senegal (Dakar, February 22, 1992)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 475-479; "To the Representatives of the European Islamic Community (Assisi, January 10, 1993)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 504-505; "To the Representatives of the Muslims of Benin (Parakou, February 4, 1993)", in Gioia, ed., Interreligious Dialogue, pp. 506-507. For further information about the Pope’s teaching about Muslims see, Michel, "Pope John Paul II’s Teaching About Islam In His Adresses To Muslims", IMA, 18 (1987), pp. 67-76; Jan van Lin, "Mission and Dialogue, God and Jesus Christ", in Gé Speelman et al, eds, Muslims and Christians in Europe: Breaking New Ground (Uitgeverij Kok: Kampen, 1993), pp. 162-178.

 263 Pope John Paul II, "The Speech of the Holy Father John Paul II to Young Muslims During His Meeting With Them at Casablanca, Morocco", Encounter, 1985, pp. 1-10.

 264 Pope John Paul II, Crossing the Threshold of Hope (London: Jonathan Cape, 1994), p. 93.

 265 Pope John Paul II, Crossing the Threshold of Hope, pp. 92-93.

 266 Arinze, "Preface to the English Translation", in Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 5.

 267 Guidelines for a Dialogue between Muslims and Christians, p. 9.

 268 Guidelines for a Dialogue between Muslims and Christians, p. 10.

 269 Borrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 10.

 270 For detailed information of the context of these Guidelines see John Renard, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Review of Six Post-Vatican II, Church-Related Documents", JES, 23/1 (1986), pp. 69-89.

 271 Guidelines for a Dialogue between Muslims and Christians, p.143.

 272 Troll, "Changing Catholic Views of Islam", p. 14

 273 Borrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 113.

 274 Troll, "Changing Catholic Views of Islam", p. 14.

 275 Borrrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 57.

 276 Borrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 58.

 277 Borrmans, Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims, p. 58.

 278 Concerning individual scholars views on the Prophethood of Muhammad see Chapter Five.

 279Dialogue and Mission 5; Concerning for further information see, Dupuis, "A Theological Commentary: Dialogue and Proclamation", in Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue, p. 129-131; The question of the relationship between mission and dialogue is also very much discussed by individual thinkers. For example see P. Mojzez & L. Swidler, eds., Christian Mission and Interreligious Dialogue (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1990).

 280 Dialogue and Mission. 6

 281 Dialogue and Mission 7

 282 Pope John Paul II, "Address of the Pope at the conclusion of the Plenary Assembly of the Secretariat", Bulletin 56, 19/2 (1984), pp. 122-123.

 283 Dialogue and Mission 13.

 284 Dialogue and Mission 18.

 285 Dialogue and Mission 13; also see, Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names, p. 137.

 286 It quotes those who "through divine inspiration would desire to go among the Muslims can establish spiritual contact with them [Muslims] in two ways: a way which does not raise arguments and disputes, but rather they should be subject to every human creature for the love of God and confess themselves to be Christians. The other way is that when they see that it would be pleasing to the Lord, they should announce the word of God (Dialogue and Mission 17).

 287 Renzo Giacomelli, Men of God: Men for Others (New York: St Paul Publications, 1994), p. 110.

 288 Dialogue and Mission 29.

 289 Dialogue and Mission 29.

 290 Dialogue and Mission 30.

 291 Dialogue and Mission 29-35. These types of dialogue were also highlighted by the recent document of Pontifical Council (see Dialogue and Proclamation 42). Apart from these types, a number of individual scholars have sugested diverse typologies and different types for dialogue. For example, E. Sharpe broadly classifies dialogue into four different kinds namely, discursive dialogue, human dialogue, secular dialogue and interior dialogue (Sharpe, "The Goals of Inter-Religious Dialogue", in Hick, ed., Truth and Dialogue: The Relationship between World Religions (London: Sheldon Press, 1974), pp. 77-95). D. Lochhead too speaks about four types of dialogue namely, dialogue as negotiation, dialogue as integration, dialogue as activity and the dialogical imperative or dialogue as relationship (see Lochhead, The Dialogical Imperative: A Christian Reflection on Interfaith Encounter (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1988), pp. 59-81).

 292 Dialogue and Mission 29.

 293 Dialogue and Mission 37.

 294 Dialogue and Mission 41,42.

 295 Dialogue and Mission 13.

 296 Knitter, Jesus and Other Names, p. 137.

 297 A. Pushparajan, "Whither Interreligious Dialogue; A Reflective Response to the Vatican Document on Dialogue and Proclamation", Vidyajyoti, 56 (1992), p. 225.

 298 Fitzmaurice, "The Roman Catholic Church and Interreligious Dialogue", p.100.

 299 Arinze, "Dialogue and Proclamation: Two Aspects of the Evangelising Mission of the Church, Bulletin, 77 (1991), pp. 201-202; For the analysis of the statements of this document see, Dupuis, "A Theological Commentary: Dialogue and Proclamation", in Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue, pp. 131-157.

 300 Dialogue and Proclamation 14.

 301 Dialogue and Proclamation 14.

 302 See Chapter One section 1.4.1.

 303 Dialogue and Proclamation 17.

 304 Dialogue and Proclamation 29.

 305 Dupuis, "A Theological Commentary: Dialogue and Proclamation", p. 137.

 306 See Chapter One section 1.3.1.

 307 Dialogue and Proclamation 19.

 308 Dialogue and Proclamation 21; see concerning Jesus’s dialogue with non-Jews, Mt. 8:5-13; Jn.4:23.

 309 Redemptor Hominis. 6.

 310 For the conciliar documents see Ad Gentes Divinitus 3:11; Guadium et Spes 10-11,22,26,38,41 and 92-93.

 311 Dialogue and Proclamation 17.

 312 Dialogue and Proclamation 29.

 313 Dialogue and Proclamation 19.

 314 Dialogue and Proclamation 22.

 315 Dialogue and Proclamation 28.

 316 Dialogue and Proclamation 29.

 317 Dialogue and Proclamation 40.

 318 Dialogue and Proclamation 41.

 319 Dialogue and Proclamation 42; These forms of dialogue are the dialogue of life; the dialogue of deeds; the dialogue of specialists; and the dialogue of religious experience (see, Dialogue and Mission 29-35.

 320 Dialogue and Proclamation 47.

 321 Dialogue and Proclamation 48.

 322 Dialogue and Proclamation 52.

 323 Dialogue and Proclamation 53.

 324 Dialogue and Proclamation 77.

 325 Dialogue and Proclamation 77.

 326 Dialogue and Proclamation 2.

 327 Dialogue and Proclamation 8; see Knitter, Jesus and Other Names, p. 138.

 328 Dialogue and Proclamation 77.

 329 Dialogue and Proclamation 77.

 330 See Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names, p. 137.

 331 Pushparajan, "Whither Interreligious Dialogue?", p. 231.

 332 Anthony Gittens, "A Missionary’s Misgivings: Reflections on Two Recent Documents", in Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue, p. 220.

 333 See Dupuis, "A Theological Commentary", pp. 119-157; Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names, pp. 131-38.

 334 Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names, p. 142.

 335 See Fitzmaurice, What will the Third Vatican Council have to say about Relations between Christians and People of Other Faiths, pp. 1-16.

336 The World Council of Churches was established by the affiliation of the various non-Catholic Churches at its founding Assembly held in Amsterdam in 1948. This establishment is also called "Ecumenical Movement" because of its concern for the establishment of the unity and renewal of the Church (See W.A. Visser’t Hoft, The Genesis and Formation of the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC, 1982); Martin VanElderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC, 1990). After this stage we will use WCC when we refer to this establishment.

 337 Concerning the changing missionary Christian approaches to people of other faiths and ecumenical movement’s attitude toward other religions and their members, see Cracknell, Justice, Courtesy and Love; Theologians and Missionaries Encountering World Religions (London: Epwort Press, 1995); Carl F. Hallencreutz, New Approaches to Men of Other Faiths, 1938-1968: A Theological Discussion (Geneva: WCC, 1970); Hallencreutz, Dialogue in Community: Current Issues in Ecumenical Relationships (Uppsala: Swedish Institute of Missionary Research, 1977); S. Wesley Ariarajah, Hindus and Christians: A Century of Protestant Ecumenical Thought (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans 1991); Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in Catholic Church since Vatican II, pp. 135-272.

 338 Eeuwout Klootwijk, Commitment and Openness: The Interreligious Dialogue and Theology of Religions in the Work of Stanley J. Samartha (Netherlands: Uitgeverij Boekencentrum), 1992, p. 103.

 339 John Ottley Percy, ed., Facing the Unfinished Task: Messages Delivered at the Congress on World Mission (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1961, p. 9 cited in Hick, "Religious Pluralism and Absolute Claims", in L.S. Rouner, ed., Religious Pluralism (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985), pp. 193-213.

 340 Hallencreutz, New Approaches, p. 18

 341 Cracknell, Justice, Courtesy and Love, p. 191: In his analysis of the missionaries’ responses to that questionnaire, Cracknell indicates that the following points of those responses have become the official policy of the WCC in its attitude toward people of other faiths in the course of time, although they had not been taken into account seriously at that time. These points are: (1) Christians should respect and esteem those who belong to other faiths. (2) Interreligious understanding should be focused upon people rather than the religious systems. (3) In face to face meetings with people of other faiths, it is much more helpful to know the dialogue partner than to read a book about his/her religious tradition. (4) Through the interaction with people of other faiths, Christians can learn their own faith better. (5) Whatever a Christian says about other religions should be acceptable to members of those religions. (6) The values and good sides of other religions should be appreciated by Christians. (7) Other religious traditions can contain some revelation, but they are not as perfect as the Christian revelation. In other words all religions can have authentic revelation but only the Christian revelation is exhaustive. (8) God is at work in other religions through the Holy Spirit. (9) The religious figures of other religions such as Muhammad, Confucius, Gotama can be regarded as "agents of the divine activity". (10) Through the Christian message the other religions can be fulfilled. Or other religions are regarded preparatio evangelica (Cracknell, Justice, Courtesy and Love, pp. 196ff; Cracknell,"The Theology of Religion in the IMC and WCC 1910-1989", CD, 19 (1991), pp. 3-17).

 342 Ariarajah, Hindus and Christians p. 116.

 343 Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 138.

 344 Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, p. 137

 345 Hallencreutz, "A Long-Standing Concern: Dialogue in Ecumenical History 1910-1971" in Stanley J. Samartha, ed., Living Faiths and the Ecumenical Movement (Geneva: WCC, 1971), p. 59.

 346 Klootwijk, Commitment and Openness, p. 104.

 347 Visser’t Hooft, ed., The Evanston Report : The Second Assembly of the WCC (London: SCM Press, 1954), p. 106.

 348 Hallencreutz, "A Long-Standing Concern", pp. 59-60.

 349 Klootwijk, Commitment and Openness, p. 105.

 350 Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics; The Doctrine of the Word of God, v.1/2 (Edinburgh: T & T Clarck, 1978 first published in 1956), pp. 344-345.

 351 Barth, Church Dogmatics, v.1/2, p. 297.

 352 Barth, Church Dogmatics, v.1/2, pp. 349-350.

 353 Barth, Church Dogmatics; The Doctrine of Reconciliation, v. 4/3a, pp. 113-114.

 354 Peter Harrison, "Karl Barth and The Non-Christian Religions", JES, 23/2 (1986), pp. 207-224; Donald W. Dayton, "Karl Barth and the Wider Ecumenism", in P. Phan, ed., Christianity and the Wider Ecumenism (New York: Pragon House, 1990), pp. 181-189.

 355 Knitter, Towards a Protestant Theology of Religions; A Case Study of Paul Althaus and Contemporary Attitudes (Marburg: N.G. Elbert Verlag. 1974), pp. 32-36.

 356 Barth, Church Dogmatics, 4/3a, p. 86.

 357 Hendrik Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1938).

 358 Hallencreutz, New Approaches to Men of Other Faiths, pp. 21-39.

 359 Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, p. 113.

 360 Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, p. 107.

 361 Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, p.25.

 362 Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, pp. 101-114.

 363 Visser’t Hooft, ed., The New Delhi Report: Report of the Third Assembly of the WCC (London: Student Christian Movement Press, 1962), p. 84.

 364 Ronald K. Orchard, Witness in Six Continents: Records of the Meeting of the Commission on the World Mission and Evangelism of the WCC Held in Mexico City, December 8-19, 1963 (London: SCM Press, 1964), p. 147.

 365 World Council of Churches, Minutes of the Second Meeting of the Commission on World Mission and Evangelism (Geneva: WCC, 1963), pp. 116-117.

 366 Victor E. W. Hayward, "Consultation Among Christians from the Muslim World", in Christians Meeting Muslims WCC Papers on Ten Years of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: the WCC, 1977), p. 13.

 367 Hayward, "Consultation among Christians from the Muslim World", pp. 13ff.

 368 For example the Indian theologian Nirman Minz offered an alternative dialogue understanding for non-Catholic Christians by maintaining that dialogue as a missionary strategy for converting the dialogue partner "defeats its own purpose." Such a theology is by its very nature defensive, and self-justification becomes its final aim. Thus it precludes the elemental openness and willingness necessary for understanding the other as equal partner in the dialogue. We hold that the task of theology in a changed cultural situation is to promote understanding, intelligibility and the relevance of truth, and to effect reconciliation and community between men of different faiths in general . . . " (Nirman Minz, "Theologies of Dialogue: A Critique", Religion and Society, 14/2 (1967), p. 11). The Srilankan theologian, Lynn de Silva, too, argued that there should not be room for the belief that there is no salvation outside the Christian Church in the Christian theology of religions; instead Christians can express the uniqueness of the Christ-event by advocating that there is no salvation apart from Christ. Then he explained the implication of these changes as follows. "This does not mean that only those who consciously acknowledge the Lordship of Jesus Christ as known in history will be saved and all others will be lost eternally. The Christ-event is the classic instance of salvation, but not the exclusive event in history through which God has mediated his salvation to mankind. The other events, although they do not measure up to the classic event, are in no way insufficient means of salvation. Each event, like the Christ event, is a promise and guarantee of the salvation that is to be in the end-time" (Lynn de Silva, "Non-Christian Religions and God’s Plan of Salvation", Study Encounter, 3/2 (1967), p. 64)

 369 "Christians in Dialogue with Men of Other Faiths", Religion and Society,14/2 (1967), pp. 64-69.

 370 "Christians in Dialogue", p. 64.

 371 "Christians in Dialogue", p. 65.

 372 "Christians in Dialogue", p. 65.

 373 "Christians in Dialogue", pp. 65-66.

 374 "Christians in Dialogue", p. 66

 375 "Christians in Dialogue", p. 68.

 376 "Christians in Dialogue", pp. 65-66

 377 "Christians in Dialogue", pp. 53-54.

 378 Hendrik Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, The World Council of Churches and The Challenge of Religious Plurality Between 1967 and 1979 (Utrecht: Interuniversitair Instituut voor Missiologie en Oecumenica, 1994), p. 63.

 379 Hallencreutz, Dialogue and Community, p. 29.

 380 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 66.

 381 See Normann Goodall, The Uppsala Report 1968: Official Report of the Fourth Assembly of WCC, Uppsala, July 4-20, 1968 (Geneva: WCC, 1968).

 382 Goodall, The Uppsala Report, p. 29; It says that "the meeting with men of other faiths or no faith must lead to dialogue. Christians’ dialogue with another implies neither denial of the uniqueness of Christ, nor any loss of his own commitment to Christ, but rather a genuinely Christian approach to others must be human, personal, relevant and humble . . . "

 383 "Dialogue between Men of Living Faiths; The Ajaltoun Memorandum" in Samartha, ed., Living Faith and the Ecumenical Movement, p. 15-32.

 384 "Dialogue between Men of Living Faiths", p. 16.

 385 Hallencreutz, Dialogue in Community, p. 31.

 386 Samartha, Between Two Cultures (Geneva: WCC, 1996), p. 50.

 387 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 57.

 388 "Christians in Dialogue with Men of Other Faiths :The Zürich Aide-Memoire", in Samartha, ed., Living Faiths and the Ecumenical Movement, pp.33-45.

 389 See Leonard Swidler, "The Dialogue Decalogue: Ground Rules For Interreligious, Inter-ideological Dialogue", JES, Winter 1983, pp. 1-4.

 390 "The Zürich Aide-Mémoire", p. 36.

 391 Dick C. Mulder, "A History of the Subunit on Dialogue of the World Council of Churches", SID, 2 (1992), p. 137.

 392 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p.89.

 393 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 64.

 394 Samartha joined the staff of the WCC during the WCC’s fourth assembly in Uppsala in 1968 as an associate secretary in the Department of Studies in Mission and Evangelism. After the establishment of the DFI in 1971 he became its first director and stayed in this job until 1980. During this period he played a leading role in the Christian approach to the question of interreligious dialogue and the developing of a more positive Christian theology of religions both in the circle of the WCC and India; subsequently he has been deeply involved in bringing the WCC to a greater awareness of the necessity of inter religious dialogue, and of a positive theological response to religious pluralism which challenge to traditional understanding of the WCC. He has even been regarded as architect of interreligious dialogue in the WCC. Knitter in his commenting on Samartha’s work, One Christ Many Religions, points out the similarities between K.Rahner and Samartha. He points out that what Rahner has been for Catholic theology, Samartha has been for non-Catholic theology with respect to the Christian attitude towards other religions (Knitter, "Stanley Samartha’s ‘One Christ-Many Religions’ : Pluralist and Problems", Current Dialogue 21, December 1991, p. 25; For further information about the significance of Samartha see Klootwjik, Commitment and Dialogue, pp. 37-49; Ariarajah, "Some Glimpses into the Theology of Dr. Stanley Samartha", pp. 231-233; and Samartha, Between Two Cultures, pp. 28-130).

 395 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 101; Kimball, Striving Together, p. 54.

 396 Klootwijk, Commitment and Openness, p. 37.

 397 M. Kinnamon & B. E. Cope, eds., The Ecumenical Movement: An Anthology of Key Texts and Voices (Geneva: WCC, 1997), pp. 393-394.

 398 George Khodr, "Christianity in a Pluralistic World, The Economy of the Holy Spirit" in Samartha, ed., Living Faiths and Ecumenical Movement, pp. 131-142. In this presentation, he mainly argued that the event of Christ should be understood as ahistorical not historical; the saving activity of God is active throughout the world through the Holy Spirit; and the mystery of the Christ event is the heart of every religious encounter between God and human beings.

 399 Samartha, "Dialogue as a Continuing Christian Concern", in Samartha, ed., Living Faiths and the Ecumenical Movement, pp. 150-162. There are two significant points in this presentation of subsequent developments. Regarding the first point, Samartha argued that there is inter-relatedness between religions and ideologies. According to Samartha, considering religions and ideologies in relation to each other would do harm to religions, especially traditional religions, because of the challenging character of ideologies. On the second issue, he pointed out the significance of dialogue for the establishment of a human community across religious and ideological boundaries. Also see Samartha, Courage for Dialogue: Ecumenical Issues in Interreligious Relationship (Geneva: WCC, 1981), p. 1.

 400 World Council of Churches, Minutes and Reports of the Twenty-Fourth Meeting, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, January 10th-21st, 1971 (Geneva: WCC, 1971), pp. 18-20.

 401 "The World Council of Churches and Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies, "An Interim Policy Statement and Guidelines", in Samartha, ed., Living Faiths and the Ecumenical Movement, pp, 47-48.

 402 See Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 75.

 403 "Interim Policy Statement and Guidelines", p. 50.

 404 "Interim Policy Statement and Guidelines", p. 51.

 405 "Interim Policy Statement and Guidelines", pp. 51-52.

 406 See Chapter Two section 2.2.

 407 The title of this sub-unit implies the following points: "First, the dialogue is to be with people, not with religious communities and their representatives. Second, the avoidance of the word religions is significant", since it indicates that the personnel of the WCC want to enter into dialogue with others not by virtue of their religions. "Third, no distinction is made between people who think of themselves as religious believers and those who are committed to other types of movements" (See, John Cobb, "The Meaning of Pluralism for Christian Self-Understanding", in Rouner, ed., Religious Pluralism), pp. 161-174).

 408 See Mulder, "A History of the Sub-Unit on Dialogue of the World Council of Churches", pp. 136-151; Mulder, "Developments in Dialogue with Muslims: World Council of Churches", in Gé Speelman, et al, eds., Muslims and Christians in Europe, pp.153-161.

 409 Minutes and Reports of the Twenty-Fourth Meeting, p. 54.

 410 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 171.

 411 Concerning the Broumana meeting see S.J. Samartha & J.B. Taylor, eds. Christian-Muslim Dialogue; Papers from Broumana 1972 (Geneva: WCC Publication, 1972); Samartha highlights the main objectives of this meeting in his opening speech of the conference as follows. "To initiate better relationships between Christians and Muslims on the basis of informed understanding, critical appreciation and balanced judgement of each others’ beliefs.

To see how the spiritual resources of the two living faiths can contribute to the solution of some of the common problems we face in society today. To suggest practical ways of co-operation between Christians and Muslims in particular situations, and, of course, ways of extending it to our neighbours of other living faiths. To raise basic questions on human life and existence for long-range reflection and action together which can lead each of the communities of faith to a deepening and renewal of its own spirituality" (Samartha, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Perspective of Recent History", in Samartha and Taylor, Christian-Muslim Dialogue, p. 12). The Catholic Church had expressed similar objectives in its document Nostra Aetate and Christian-Muslim dialogue meetings, as we observed in chapters one and two.

 412 "Memorandum; In Search of Understanding and Cooperation", in Samartha & Taylor, eds., Muslim-Christian Dialogue, pp. 156-163.

 413 "Memorandum", pp. 156-157.

 414 "Memorandum", p. 157.

 415 See "Memorandum", p. 156.

 416 See Kimball, Striving Together, p. 93.

 417 "Towards World Community: Resources and Responsibilities for Living Together", in Samartha, ed., Towards World Community: the Colombo Papers (Geneva: WCC, 1975), pp. 115-129.

 418 "Towards World Community", p. 120.

 419 "Towards World Community", p. 125.

 420 "Towards World Community", pp. 123-124.

 421 "Towards World Community", p. 126.

 422 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 90.

 423 The results of this discussion were summed up in a document which is known as The Lausanne Covenant. In a section on "The Nature of Evangelism", it maintains that Christians can only acknowledge "that kind of dialogue whose purpose is to listen sensitively in order to understand," not to learn from. In another section on "The Uniqueness and Universality of Christ", it completely rejects the policy of the WCC concerning dialogue with people of other faiths by declaring, "We also reject as derogatory to Christ and the Gospel every kind of syncretism and dialogue which implies that Christ speaks equally through all religions and ideologies". Briefly, in this meeting, conservative and evangelical Christians regarded the dialogical approach of the WCC to people of other faiths a betrayal of the Gospel, and as tending to syncretism. As a result, it was believed that interest in and support for interreligious dialogue has tended to become a mark of liberal Christians associated with the WCC (J.D. Douglas, Let Earth Hear His Voice: International Congress on World Evangelisation, Lausanne, Switzerland (Minneaplois: World Wide Publications, 1975), pp. 3-4.

 424 David M. Paton, ed., Breaking Barriers, Nairobi 1975; The Official Report of the Fifth Assembly of the WCC, Nairobi, 23 Nowember-10 December 1975 (Geneva: WCC, 1976).

 425 Paton, Breaking Barriers, pp. 70-85.

 426 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 105; when compared with the Catholic Church dialogue activities, it can be argued that non-Catholic churches were late to deal with the issue of interreligious dialogue as a separate subject in their assemblies.

 427 The following questions which were raised in this section support this conclusion. "How is God’s work as Creator and Saviour in Christ related to His work among people of all faiths, cultures, and ideologies? What is the nature of Christian witness and what are its forms in the context of dialogue? Are dialogue and mission really valid alternatives? Does openness in dialogue betray Christ-centredness? Is dialogue a tool for mission or a betrayal of it? To what extent and by what criteria could Christians recognise any validity in truth claims and even the missions of other faiths and ideologies ( Work Book of the Fifth Assembly of the WCC: Nairobi, Kenya 23 November-10 December 1975 (Geneva: WCC, 1975), pp. 37-38.

 428 Paton, Breaking Barriers, p. 71.

 429 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 137.

 430 Concerning the preamble which added to the report of "Seeking Community " of Nairobi Meeting, see Paton, Breaking Barriers, pp. 73-74

 431 See Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 139.

 432 Samuel Rayan "The Ultimate Blasphemy: On Putting God in a Box", IRM, 65 (1976), p. 129-132

 433 In this respect he highlights that "dialogue does not in any way diminish full and loyal commitment to one’s own faith, but rather enriches and strengthens it. Dialogue, far from being a temptation against syncretism, is a safeguard against it, because in [the process] of dialogue [participants] get to know one another’s faiths in depth. Dialogue is a creative interaction which liberates a person giving him a vision a wider dimension of spiritual life, by sharing in the spirituality of others. Dialogue is essential to dispel the negative attitude which [one side] has to the other side"( Paton, Breaking Barriers, p. 73).

 434 Paton, Breaking Barriers, p. 73.

 435 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, pp. 144-145.

 436 Samartha, "Courage for Dialogue: An Interpretation of the Nairobi Debate", in Courage for Dialogue, p. 51.

 437 Christian Mission and Islamic Da’wah, Proceedings of the Chambesy Dialogue Consultation (Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1982), p. 99.

 438 "Statement of the Conference", in Christian Mission and Islamic Da’wah, p. 100.

 439 "Statement of the Conference", p. 101.

 440 "Next Steps in Christian-Muslim Dialogue" in S. E. Brown, Meeting in Faith: Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim Conversations Sponsored by the World Council of Churches, (Geneva: WCC, 1989), p.88.

 441 "Next Steps in Christian-Muslim Dialogue", p. 88.

 442 "Next Steps in Christian-Muslim Dialogue", p. 89.

 443 Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church since Vatican II, pp. 232-237.

 444 For the report of this consultation, see "Dialogue in Community: Statement Adopted by the Consultation", in S. J. Samartha, ed., Faith in the Midst of Faiths; Reflections on Dialogue in Community (Geneva: WCC Publication, 1977), pp. 134-149.

 445 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 145.

 446 Samartha, "A Pause for Reflection", in Samartha, ed., Faith in the Midst of Faiths, p. 11.

 447 Samartha, "A Pause for Reflection", p. 12.

 448 Samartha, "A Pause for Reflection", p. 12.

 449 Samartha, "A Pause for Reflection", p. 13; Here, there is very close parallelism between the Chiang Mai’s pluralistic understanding world communities and the Qur’anic understanding, since on this issue the Qur’an says "If God had so willed, He would have made all of you one community, but (He has not done so) that He may test you in what He has given you.(Q. 4:48).

 450 "Dialogue in Community", p. 139.

 451 "Dialogue in Community", p. 140.

 452 "Dialogue in Community", p. 139.

 453 "Dialogue in Community", p. 142; Emphases are mine.

 454 "Dialogue in Community", p. 144.

 455 See Chapter Two sections 2.4.1.2, 2.6.1, 2.6.2,

 456 Kimball, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue", in John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Encylopedia of the Modern Islamic World v.3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp.201-205.

 457 "Dialogue in Community", p.145.

 458 "Dialogue in Community", p. 145.

 459 "Dialogue in Community", 148; also see Mulder, "Dialogue and Syncretism: Some Concluding Observations", in J. Gort et al.,eds., Dialogue and Syncretism: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), pp. 203-211.

 460 Ariarajah, Hindus and Christians, p. 154.

 461 These theological questions are: "What is the relation between the universal creative/redemptive activity of God towards all humankind and the peculiar creative/redemptive activity of God in the history of Israel and in the person and work of Jesus Christ?

Are Christians to speak of God’s work in the lives of all men and women only in tentative terms of hope that they may experience something of Him, or more positively in terms of God’s self-disclosure to people of living faiths and ideologies and in the struggle of human life?

How are Christians to find from the Bible criteria in their approach to people of other faiths and ideologies, recognising as they must, the authority accorded to the Bible by Christians of all centuries, particular questions concerning the authority of the Old Testament for the Christian church, and the fact that the partners in dialogue have other starting points and resources, both in the holy books and traditions of teachings?

What is the biblical view and Christian experience of the operation of the Holy Spirit, and is it right and helpful to understand the work of God outside the church in terms of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit?("Dialogue in Community", p. 147).

 462 Samartha, Between Two Cultures, p. 127.

 463 "Dialogue in Community", p. 146.

 464 Samartha, "Dialogue in Community: A Step Forward: An Interpretation of the Chiang Mai Consultation", in Samartha, ed., Faith in the Midst of Faiths, p. 186.

 465 Pranger, Dialogue in Discussion, p. 155.

 466 World Council of Churches, Guidelines on Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies (Geneva: WCC, 1979).

 467 Guidelines on Dialogue, pp. 17-18.

 468 Guidelines on Dialogue, pp. 18-19.

 469 Guidelines on Dialogue, pp. 21-22 ; See Chapter Two section 2.2.4.

 470 See Raimundo Panikkar, "The Rules of the Game in Interreligious Encounter", in Panikkar, The Intrareligious Dialogue (New York: Paulist Press, 1978), pp. 25ff ; Swidler, "The Dialogue Decalogue: Ground Rules for Interreligious Dialogue", pp. 1-4; Paul Mojzes, "Guidelines for Dialogue", in L. Swidler & P. Mojzes, eds., Attitudes of Religions and Ideologies towards the Outsider (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1990), pp. 14-15.

 471 Knitter, No Other Name?, p. 139.

 472 Guidelines on Dialogue, pp. 10-11.

 473 Guidelines on Dialogue, pp. 14-15.

 474 Smith, Towards a World Theology: Faith and the Comparative History of Religion (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 97.

 475 See Chapter One section 1.6.

 476 These guidelines consist of the following four essential principles for dialogue: "Dialogue begins when people meet each other; Dialogue depends upon mutual understanding and mutual trust; Dialogue makes it possible to share in service to the community; Dialogue becomes the medium of authentic witness (Relations with People of Other Faiths; Guidelines For Dialogue in Britain, BCC, 1981), the four principles of Dialogue elaborated and republished by CCBI under the title of In Good Faith [1991]. In this elaboration was emphasised on the importance of making personal and group meeting with people of other faiths; establishing mutual friendship, being together with them in the time of personal and family crises; coming together to solve common problems such as racial harassment, drug abuse; giving them freedom of expression of their own faith and ensuring facilities to observe their religious duties (In Good Faith; The Four Principles of Interfaith Dialogue, CCBI, 1991).

 477 Taylor, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue, Colombo 1982", Islamochristiana, 8 (1982), p. 209.

 478 Taylor, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue", pp. 209-210; Here we would like to point out that despite this agreement on the abusing of humanitarian programmes between Christian and Muslim participants, three days later after the close of this meeting, Christian participants came together to evaluate the meeting. In this evaluation it was pointed out that diakonia as the expression of God’s love is a duty of Christians to those in need without any intention of proselytism. But, on the other hand, it was remarked that Christians should not hide that they are Christian while doing diakonia ( Taylor, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue", p. 212).

 479 Taylor, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue", p. 211.

 480 For these regional meetings from 1983 to 1989, see Brown, ed., Meeting in Faith: Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim Conversation Sponsored by the WCC, pp. 133-181.

 481 A. J. Van der Bent, Sixteen Ecumenical Concerns (Geneva: WCC, 1986), p. 60.

 482 F.R. Wilson, ed., The San Antonio Report (Geneva: WCC, 1990), pp. 32-33.

 483 Ariarajah, " San Antonio and Other Faiths", CD, 16, August (1989), p. 8.

 484 Diana Eck, "On Seeking and Finding in the World Religions", CC, 107 (1990), p. 454.

 485 "Baar Statement: Religious Plurality, Theological Perspectives And Affirmations", CD 19 (1991), p. 48.

 486 "Baar Statement, Religious Plurality", p.48.

 487 Knitter, "A New Pentecost? A Pneumatological Theology of Religions", CD 19(1991), pp. 32-41.

 488 "Statement: Religious Plurality", pp. 49-50; see also, Knitter, "A New Pentecost?", p. 40.

 489 See Chapters One and Two.

 490 "Baar Statement: Religious Plurality", p. 51.

 491 Ariarajah, "Observations: Dialogue Concerns in the New Structure of the WCC", CD, 19 (1991), pp.2-5.

 492 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, Office on Inter-Religious Relations (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1992).

 493 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, p. 5.

 494 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, pp. 5-6.

 495 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, p. 8.

 496 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, p. 8.

 497 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, pp. 9-13.

 498 Issues in Christian-Muslim Relations, pp. 14-15.

 499 Tarek Mitri ed., Religion, Law and Society; A Christian-Muslim Discussion, (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1995); also see Siddiqui, "Christian-Muslim Dialogue: Problems and Challenges", Encounters, 2/2 (1996), pp. 129-133.

 500 Ariarajah, Hindus and Christians, p. 157

 501 See Alfred T. Welch, "Qur’anic Studies, Problem and Prospects", JAAR, 48 (1979), p. 620; Stefan Wild, "‘We Have Sent Down To Thee The Book With The Truth . . . ’ Spatial and temporal implications of the Qur’anic concepts of nuzul, tanzil, and inzal", S. Wild, ed., The Qur’an As Text (Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill, 1996), p. 137; Wilfred C. Smith, "Some Similarities and Differences between Christianity and Islam: An Essay in Comparative Religion", in J. Kritzeck & R. R. Winder, eds., The World of Islam (New York: A Division of Arno Press, 1980), pp. 47-59; William A. Graham, "Qur’an as Spoken Word: An Islamic Contribution to the Understanding of Scripture", in R.C. Martin, ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1985), pp. 23-41; Coward, Sacred word and Sacred Text: Scripture in World Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1988), pp. 81-104; Jane D. McAuliffe, Qur’anic Christians: An Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

 502 Daniel, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London: Longman, 1979), p. 234; Daniel, Islam and the West; The Making of an Image (Oxford: Oneworld, 1993 first published in 1960), pp. 53-66; Hourani, Islam in European Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 12ff; Hartmut Bobzin, "‘A Treasury of Heresies’: Christian Polemics against the Koran", in S. Wild., ed., Qur’an As Text, pp. 157-175.

 503 The Challenge of the Scriptures, The Bible and the Qur’an, pp.48-49.

 504 Khurshid Ahmed, Islam and the West (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1979), p. 18; For further information about Watt’s significance for the understanding of Islam in the West see Jabal Muhammad Buaben, Image of the Prophet Muhammad in the West: A Study of Muir, Margoliouth and Watt (Leciester: Islamic Foundation, 1996), 154-159.

 505 W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Revelation in the Modern World (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969).

 506 Watt, Introduction to the Qur’an (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971).

 507 Watt, What is Islam? (London: Longmans, 1968); Watt, Islam and Christianity Today: A Contribution to Dialogue (London: Routledge, 1983), pp. 55-76; Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988), pp. 60-68; Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism and Modernity (London: Routledge, 1988), p.82-84.

 508 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 17.

 509 Watt, Companion to the Qur’an (Oxford: Oneworld , 1994 first published in 1967), p. 3.

 510 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 10.

 511 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 45

 512 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 8.

 513 Watt, Islam and Christianity Today, pp. 60-61.

 514 Watt, "Ultimate Vision and Ultimate Truth", in M. Forward, ed., Ultimate Visions: Reflections on the Religions We Choose (Oxford: Oneworld, 1995), p. 283.

 515 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 82.

 516 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 83.

 517 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p.83; Qur’an 19:28; 4:157; 4:171; 5:73, 116.

 518 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 18.

 519 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 83.

 520 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p, 15.

 521 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 109.

 522 According to this theory in every human being there is a personal as well as a collective unconscious. While the former one owes its existence to one’s personal experience, the latter one could not have been individually acquired but is inherited. It consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents. This collective unconscious is also called "life energy" through which things are brought from unconscious to conscious. See C. G. Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (London: Routledge, second edition, 1968), pp. 42-53.

 523 Watt, Islamic Revelation, pp. 109-110; Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca, pp. 67-68; Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, pp. 83-84.

 524 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 109.

 525 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 110; He depicts this sort of understanding of the nature of revelation in his What is Islam? as follows: "A modern view of revelation would regard it as, in the first place, the work of the collective unconscious. It is not the product of the prophet’s consciousness, nor even of his personal unconscious. The fact that the revelation has an appeal for vast numbers of people shows that it must come from an area of life which is common to large numbers of people. The words ‘in the first place’ are to be emphasised, since according to views outlined above, what comes from the collective unconscious comes from Life that has been postulated and then ultimately from the transcendent Being in which that Life is grounded (Watt, What is Islam?, p. 222). It seems that what Watt implies here is that the producer and inspirer of the Qur’an is not the God of the Muslims nor the God of Judae-Christian tradition nor the Prophet himself but the collective unconscious which comes from the transcendent Being in which Life is grounded.

 526 Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca, p. 68; Watt, "Muhammad’s Contribution in the Field of Ultimate Reality and Meaning", Ultimate Reality and Meaning: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Philosophy of Understanding, 5/1 (1982), pp. 26-38.

 527 Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 84.

 528 Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca, p. 68; Watt, "The Nature of Muhammad’s Prophethood", SJRS, 8/2 (1987), pp. 79-84.

 529 Watt, "Interview", Trends, 7/5, 1997, pp. 10-11.

 530 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 17.

 531 See Andreas D’Souza, "Christian Approaches to the Study of Islam, An Analysis of Watt and Cragg", BHMISS, Jan-Jun, 1992, pp. 55-87.

 532 Smith, Towards a World Theology, p. 97.

 533 Smith, "Is the Qur’an the Word of God?", in Questions of Religious Truth (London: Victor Gollancz 1967); This essay also appeared in his On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1981), pp. 282-300.

 534 Smith, "The True Meaning of the Scripture: An Empirical Historian’s Nonreductionist Interpretation of the Qur’an", IJMES, II( 1980). This essay has been published by Smith as the fourth chapter of his book Smith, What is Scripture?, A Comparative Approach ( London: SCM Press, 1993).

 535 Smith, Questions of Religious Truth, pp. 45-48.

 536 Smith, Questions of Religious Truth, p. 49.

 537 Smith, Questions of Religious Truth, pp. 57-58.

 538 Smith, Questions of Religious Truth, pp. 60-62.

 539 Smith, Towards a World Theology, 164.

 540 Smith, "Can Believers Share the Qur’an and the Bible as Word of God", in J. D. Gort et al, eds., On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), pp. 55-63.

 541 Smith, "Can Believers Share the Qur’an and the Bible as Word of God?", p. 59.

 542 Smith, "Can Believers Share the Qur’an and the Bible as Word of God?", p. 60.

 543 Smith, "The True Meaning of the Scripture", p. 489.

 544 Smith, "The True Meaning of the Scripture", p. 490.

 545 Smith, Questions of Religious Truth, p. 50.

 546 Smith, "True Meaning of Scripture", pp. 503-504.

 547 Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959), p. 18; also see Smith, "Some Similarities and Differences between Christianity and Islam", pp. 47-59; Against Smith’s analogy that historical criticism of the Qur’an is similar to the psychoanalysis of Jesus, Raisanen argues that "neither psychoanalysis of Jesus nor a thorough demythologisation of Christology are unheard-of enterprises among Christians (Heikki Räisänen, Marcion, Muhammad and the Mahatma: Exegetical Perspectives on the Encounter of Cultures and Faiths (London: SCM Press, 1996). p. 135).

 548 Smith, "The True Meaning of Scripture", p. 498.

 549 Smith, "The True Meaning of Scripture", pp. 504-505; He says that "The Qur’an has played a role—formative, dominating, liberating, spectacular—in the lives of the millions of people, philosophers and peasants, politicians and merchants and housewives, saints, sinners, in Bagdad and Cordoba and Agra, in the Soviet Union since the Communist Revolution, and so on. That role is worth discerning and pondering. The attempt to understand the Qur’an is to understand how it has fired the imagination, and inspired the poetry, and formulated the inhibitions, and guided the ecstasies, and teased the intellect, and ordered family relations and legal chicaneries, and nurtured the piety, of hundreds of millions of people in widely diverse climes and over a series of radically divergent centuries (Smith, "The True Meaning of Scripture", p. 498; Smith, "The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible", in M. Levering, ed., Rethinking Scripture (New York: State University of New York Press, 1989), pp. 20-21).

 550 Smith, "The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible", p. 21.

 551 Smith, "Can Believers Share the Qur’an and the Bible as Word of God?", p. 62.

 552 Smith, The Meaning and End of Religion, p. 112.

 553 Neal Robinson, "The Qur’an as the Word of God", A. Linzey & P.J. Wexler, eds., Heaven and Earth; Essex Essays in Theology and Ethics (West Sussex: Churchman Publishing Limited, 1986), pp. 38-54.

 554 Nasr, "Comments on a Few Theological Issues in the Islamic-Christian Dialogue", pp. 457-467.

 555 See Willem A. Bijlefeld, "Islamic Studies Within the Perspective of the History of Religions", MW, 62 (1972), pp. 1-11

 556 Kenneth Cragg, The Event of The Qur’an; Islam in its Scripture (London: George Allen, 1971).

 557 Cragg, The Mind of the Qur’an, Chapters in Reflection (London: George Allan & Unwin ), 1973 ;

 558 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian: A Question of Response (London: Longman and Todd, 1984).

 559 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an (London: Collins, 1988).

 560 Cragg, Returning to Mount Hira’: Islam in Contemporary Themes (London: Bellew Publishing, 1994).

 561 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, pp. 17-18.

 562 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 18.

 563 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 13

 564 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 16.

 565 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 15.

 566 Cargg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 15.

 567 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 19.

 568 Cragg, The House of Islam, 2nd edition. (Berkeley: Dickenson, 1969), p. 19.

 569 See Qur’an. 36:69; 52: 29-30; 69:40.

 570 Cragg The Event of the Qur’an, p. 41.

 571 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 46.

 572 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 87.

 573 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an p. 45.

 574 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 45ff.

 575 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, pp. 49-50.

 576 In this connection he maintains that in the Qur’an "the religious and the human, in their priority, fit all too readily into the commercial criteria. The robust assurance of the metaphors is never in doubt, nor their fitness for the issues. It is this, perhaps, more than any other consideration, which measures how deeply the ethos of Mecca penetrated the Islamic word. Trade remains a worthy parable of the eternal gains of faith. Men may ‘ send on before them’, as the frequent phrase runs, their good deeds and know that they will not fail of reward. Morality itself may be seen as a transaction in profit. To serve God is to make a sure loan. Unbelief is the bad bargain (Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 107).

 577 Watt, Islamic Revelation, p. 42; Watt, "Muhammad’s Contribution in the Field of Ultimate Reality and Meaning", pp. 26-38.

 578 Qur’an, 7:157.

 579 Cragg, The Event of the Qur’an, p. 56ff; Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 86; Cragg, The Christ and the Faiths, p. 60; Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, p. 19; Cragg, Returning to Mount Hira, p. 19.

 580 Cragg, The Christ and the Faiths, p. 60.

 581 To defend the Muslim view that the Prophet was unlettered, the renowned Muslim thinker S.H. Nasr maintains that "The Prophet must be unlettered for the same reason that the Virgin Mary must be virgin. The human vehicle of a Divine Message must be pure and untainted. One could not with any logic reject the unlettered nature of the Prophet and in the same breath defend the virginity of Mary. Both symbolize a profound aspect of this mystery of revelation and once understood one cannot be accepted and the other rejected" (Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam, (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 1993), pp. 43-44).

 582 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, p. 62.

 583 Qur’an, 30:30.

 584 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, p. 75.

 585 Qur’an, 22:67; 3:64; 5:48.

 586 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, p. 76.

 587 On this issue the distinguished Muslim scholar Fazlur Rahman points out that "the proposition of the finality of the mission of Muhammad does appear to be corroborated by the fact that no global religious movement has arisen since Islam—not that there have been no claimants, but that there have been no successful claimants. However, Muhammad’s being the last Messenger of God and the Qur’an’s being the last Revelation obviously place a heavy responsibility upon those who claim to be Muslims. Such a claim is not so much a privilege but an obligation; yet it has been taken by Muslims to be a privilege." Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980), p. 81.

 588 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, pp. 77-78.

 589 Cragg, Readings in the Qur’an, pp. 78-79.

 590 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 95; also see, Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face, p. 209.

 591 Cragg, The Christ and The Faiths, p. 53.

 592 See Qur’an. 2:1-5, 111-113; 3:71, 78; 4:171; 5:15-16, 19.

 593 Andreas D’Souza, "Christian Approaches to the Study of Islam; An Analysis of the Writings of Watt and Cragg", BHMISS, July-Dec. 1992, p. 52.

 594 Christopher Lamb, Call to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London: Grey Seal, 1997), p. 138-143.

 595 Basetti-Sani, The Koran in the Light of Christ, A Christian Interpretation of the Sacred Book of Islam (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1977), p. 120ff.

 596 Adams, "Islamic Religious Traditions", pp. 29-95; Jamil Qureysi. "Alongsidedness-In Good Faith? An Essay on Kenneth Cragg", in A. Hussain, R. Olson & J. Qureysi, eds., Orientalism, Islam and Islamists (Brattleboro, Vermont: Amana Books, 1984), 203-248.

 597 Farid Esack, "Qur’anic Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects", MW, 83/2 (1993), pp. 118-141.

 598 See Werner G. Jeanrond, "The Rationality of Faith: On Theological Methodology", Karl-Josef Kuschel & Hermann Haring, eds., Hans Küng: New Horizons for Faith and Thought (London: SCM Press, 1993), p. 105.

 599 This work was translated into English in 1986.

 600 Küng, "Christianity and World Religions: the Dialogue with Islam as One Model", MW, 77/2 (1984), pp. 80-95; Küng, "Christianity and World Religions: Dialogue with Islam", L. Swidler, ed., Towards a Universal Theology of Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1987), pp. 192-209.

 601 See Josef van Ess, "Muhammad and the Qur’an: Prophecy and Revelation", in Christianity and World Religions, pp. 5-18.

 602 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 22.

 603 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, pp. 28-29.

 604 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 28.

 605 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, pp. 29-31.

 606 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 32.

 607 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, pp. 33-34.

 608 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 34, 30.

 609 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 35.

 610 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 34.

 611 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 35.

 612 Küng, Christianity and World Religions, pp. 35-36.

 613 Concerning this point, H. Goddard maintains that application of the historical critical methods to the Bible changed Christian views about the status of the Bible by bringing them to consider it "as a developing phenomenon". He argues that because of the changing views, Christians began to look at other scripture more positively. By making this point, Goddard stresses that "the task of mutual understanding between Christian and Muslims may be greatly facilitated if Muslims were to follow a path similar to that followed by Christians in their studies of the biblical texts in their own study of the Qur’an" (H. Goddard, "Each Other’s Scripture", Newsletter, CSIC, 5 (1981), pp. 16-24).

 614 Küng, "Christianity and World Religions: Discussion", p. 121

 615 See S. H. Nasr, "Response To Hans Küng’s Paper on Christian-Muslim Dialogue", MW, 77/2 (1987), pp. 96-105.

 616 Küng,. "Christianity and World Religions: Discussion", p. 121.

 617 Küng, Christianity and the World Religions, pp. 67-68.

 618 Nasr, "Christianity and World Religions: Discussion", p. 87.

 619 See Smith, "Some Similarities and Differences between Christianity and Islam", pp. 47-59.

 620 F. Peter Ford, "The Qur’an As Sacred Scripture: An Assessment of Contemporary Christian Perspectives", MW, 82/2 (1993), pp. 142-164.

 621 Nasr, "Response to Hans Küng’s Paper on Christian-Muslim Dialogue", p. 98.

 622 Keith Ward, Religion and Revelation, A Theology of Revelation in the World’s Religions (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Two years later he also published his Religion & Creation in which he explores the idea of a creator God in the work of twentieth century writers from Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity (Ward, Religion & Creation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).

 623 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 6.

 624 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 174.

 625 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 178.

 626 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 186.

 627 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 190.

 628 Ward, Religion and Revelation, pp. 190-191.

 629 Ward, Religion and Revelation, p. 191.

 630 David Waines, An Introduction to Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 268.

 631 See John Wansbrough, Qur’anic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation,( Oxford University Press, Oxford: 1977); The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1978); By following Wansbrough, his students P. Crone and M. Cook conclude that using non-Islamic sources there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Qur’an before the end of the seventh century (Crone & Cook, Hagarism, The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 18; also see Andrew Rippin, "Literary Analysis of Qur’an, Tafsir, and Sira: The Methodology of John Wansbrough", in Martin, ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies, pp.151-163; N. Robinson criticises Crone and Cook for neglecting Islamic sources such as surah-magazi literature. He says that to use non-Islamic sources by rejecting the Islamic sources is indefensible, because by doing this they do not do justice to the Qur’anic data (Robinson, Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text (London: SCM Press, 1996,), pp. 47-59); F.E. Peters indicates that if Wansbrough, Crone and Cook’s thesis is taken as a base to explain the origin of the Qur’an, then it can be argued that "evangelical materials of Islam were assembled out of standard Jewish and Christian topoi long after the death of Muhammad, and reflect not so much historical data as the political and poetical concerns of the ‘sectarian milieu’ that shaped them. The Islamic ‘Gospel’ was as a New Testament critic might put it, the product of the Muslim community, and in its final form, of the 9th century Muslim community in Iraq, and far removed in time and space from the primary Sitz im Leben" (F.E. Peters, "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad", IJMES, 23(1991), p. 305). Contrary to Wansbrough, Crone and Cook, another British scholar, John Burton, in the light of the same method argues that the Qur’an as we have it today was collected and prepared by the Prophet Muhammad himself, not Abu Bakr or Uthman, arguing that "what we have today in our hands is the mushaf of the Muhammad" (Burton, The Collection of the Qur’an (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 239-240).

 632 See Rahman, "Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies", in Martin, ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies, pp189-202.

 633 Nasr, "Comments on a Few Theological Issues", p.461.

 634 Raisanen, Marcion, Muhammad and the Mahatma, p. 123.

 635 John Hick, Rainbow of Faiths (London: SCM Press, 1995), p.121.

 636 Muhammad Arkoun, Rethinking Islam: Common Questions Uncommon Answers (San Francisco: Westview Press, 1994), p. 35; also see Rahman, Islam (London: Wiedenfeld and Nicholson, 1966), pp. 31ff; Hassan Hanafi, "Method of Thematic Interpretation of the Qur’an", in Wild, ed., The Qur’an as Text, pp. 195-211; Esack, Qur’an Liberation & Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity against Oppression (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), pp. 49-81; Raisanen, Marcion, Muhammad and the Mahatma, pp. 118-136..

 637 Rahman, Islam (London: Wiedenfeld and Nicholson, 1966), p. 31

 638 Bijlefeld, "Islamic Studies within the Perspective of History of Religion", p. 5.

 639 See Hasan Askari, "Limits to Comparison: New Testament and Qur’an", Newsletter, CSIC, 5 (1981), pp. 24-28.

 640 David Kerr, "The Prophet Muhammad in Christian Theological Perspective", in Dan Cohn-Sherbok , ed., Islam in a World of Diverse Faiths (London: Macmillan Press, 1991), p. 119; Kerr, "The Prophet Muhammad: Toward A Christian Assessment", Newsletter, CSIC, No.17/18 ( 1987), pp. 24-36.

 641 Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Encounters and Clashes: Islam and Christianity in History, v.1 (Rome: P.I.S.A.I., 1984), p. 34-36.

 642 Abraham H. Khan, "Metatheological Reflections on Recent Christian Acknowledgement of Muhammad as Prophet: Inter-faith Dialogue and the Academic Study of Religion", TJT, 2/2 1986, p. 188.

 643 Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 88.

 644 See Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 88 ff; Hourani, Islam in European Though, p. 12ff; Michel, "Christianity and Islam: Reflection on Recent Teachings of the Church", p. 3; also see R.H. Drummond, "Toward Theological Understanding of Islam", JES, 9/4 (1972), pp. 777-801; Muhammad Benaboud, "Orientalism on the Revelation of the Prophet: the Case of W. Montgomery Watt, Maxime Rodinson, and Duncan Black MacDonald", AJISS, 3/2 (1986), pp. 309-326.

 645 See Miguel Asin Palacios, Islam and the Divine Comedy (London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltt, 1968). p. 103.

 646 Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His Messenger, The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 3-4; Schimmel, "The Prophet Muhammad as a Centre of Muslim Life and Thought", in A. Schimmel & A. Falaturi, eds., We Believe in One God (London: Burns & Oates, 1979), pp. 35-61.

 647 Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953), p. 52.

 648 Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 245.

 649 Kerr, "The Prophet Muhammad in Christian Theological Perspective", p. 124; For further information concerning positive Christian assessment of the Prophet Muhammad, see Clinton Bennett, Victorian Images of Islam (London: Grey Seal Books, 1992).

 650 Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes. Hero Worship and Heroic History (New York: John Wiley, 1849), p. 53.

 651 Daniel, Islam and the West, p.314.

 652 Watt, "Carlyle on Muhammad", HJ, 52 (1954-1955), pp. 247-255.

 653 Robin C. Zaehner, At Sundry Times: An Essay in the Comparison of Religions (London: Faber & Faber, 1958), p. 27.

 654 See William Muir, The Mohammedan Controversy; Biographies of Mohammed; Sprenger on Tradition; the Indian Liturgy and the Psalter (Edinburgh: T & T Clack, 1897); Edward Sell, The Life of Mohammad (London: The Christian Literature Society for India, 1913).

 655 See Bennett, Victorian Images of Islam; Peter, Ipema, The Islam Interpretations of Duncan B. Macdonald, Samuel M. Zwemer, A. Kenneth Cragg and Wilfred C. Smith: An Analytical Comparison and Evaluation, unpublished PhD thesis (Hartford: The Hartford Seminary Foundation, 1971), pp. 63ff; Buaben, Image of the Prophet Muhammad in the West, pp. 131-167; Buaben, "The Prophet Muhammad in Twentieth Century European Scholarship", Encounter, 1/2 (1995), pp. 30-52.

 656 See Part One.

 657 Küng maintains that "in my view that Church—and all the Christian Churches—must also ‘look with great respect’ upon the man whose name is omitted from the declaration out of embarrassment, although he alone led the Muslims to the worship of the one God, who spoke through him: Muhammad, the Prophet" (Küng, Christianity and World Religions, p. 27); In fact, the Catholic Church authorities broke their silence in the Tripoli meeting [1977] and Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims [1981], as has been observed in Chapter Two.

 658 Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 336.

 659 Emilio G. Aguilar, "The Second International Muslim-Christian Congress of Cordoba ( March 21-27, 1977", in Richard W. Rousseau, ed., Christianity and Islam: The Struggling Dialogue (Scranton: Ridge Row Press, 1985), p. 165.

 660 Conference of European Churches, Witness to God in Secular Europe, (Geneva: 1984), p. 56.

 661 See Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Western Attempt to Understand Islam, (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1992), p. 44; Lamin Sanneh, Piety & Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Book, 1996), p. 48; "Muhammad’s Significance for Christians", SID, 1(1991). pp. 25-29, 36-38; Forward, Muhammad: A Short Biography (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), p. 5.

 662 John Macquarrie, Mediators, (London: Collins, 1995), p. 130.

 663 William E. Phipps, Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teaching (London: SCM Press, 1996).

 664 See Thomas, "A Christian Theology of Islam", p. 4.

 665 The distinguished Islamicist Alford T. Welch adopts the same approach in his assessment of the Prophet Muhammad (see Welch, "Muhammad’s Understanding of Himself: The Koranic Data", in R.G. Hovannisian & S. Vryonis, eds., Islam’s Understanding of Itself (Malibu: Undena Publications, 1983), pp. 15-52).

 666 Daniel, Islam and the West, pp. 330-331.

 667 E.F., Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam (New York: State University of New York, 1994), p. xi.

 668 Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956), p. 232.

 669 Watt, Introduction to the Qur’an, p. 17.

 670 Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 52.

 671 Watt, Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, p. 233.

 672 See John C. Archer, Mystical Elements in Mohammed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1924), p.9ff.

 673 Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p. 57.

 674 Watt, Introduction to the Qur’an, p. 18.

 675 Watt, Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, pp. 237-238.

 676 Watt, Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, p. 238.

 677 Watt, Truth in the Religions: A Sociological and Psychological Approach (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963), p. 149.

 678 Watt, "Thoughts on Muslim-Christian Dialogue", HI, 1/1 (1978), pp. 34-35.

 679 Watt, Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, p. 240.

 680 Watt, "Thoughts on Muslim-Christian Dialogue", p. 36.

 681 Watt, Islam and Christianity Today, pp. 60-61.

 682 Watt, "Muhammad as the Founder of Islam", SM, 33 (1984), p. 249.

 683 Watt, "Muhammad as the Founder of Islam", p. 249.

 684 Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca, p. 1.

 685 Watt, "Islamic Attitude to Other Religions", SM, 42 (1993), p. 245.

 686 Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounter, p. 148.

 687 Watt, "Ultimate Vision and Ultimate Truth", pp. 280-288.

 688 Watt, Religious Truth for Our Time, (Oxford: Oneworld, 1995), p. 80.

 689 For Watt’s understanding of the status of the Qur’an see Chapter Four section 4.2.

 690 Forward, Muhammad, p. 107.

 691 Abraham H. Khan, " Methatheological Reflections on Recent Christian Acknowledgement of Muhammad as Prophet", p. 189.

 692 Cragg, The Call of the Minaret, p. 75.

 693 Cragg, The Call of the Minaret, p. 91.

 694 Cragg, The Call of the Minaret, p. 93.

 695 See Cragg, The Call of the Minaret, pp. 69ff.

 696 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 2.

 697 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 6.

 698 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 91.

 699 Khan, "On Recent Christian Acknowledgement of Muhammad as Prophet", p. 190.

 700 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, pp. 140-141.

 701 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 139.

 702 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 145.

 703 See Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 92.

 704 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 52.

 705 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 93.

 706 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 158.

 707 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 141.

 708 See Qur’an 3:31.

 709 Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, p. 54, 65.

 710 Cragg. Muhammad and the Christian, p. 127.