RELATION OF HEAVEN AND MAN

The relationship between man and nature is one of the fundamental issues in Chinese philosophy; the ancients called it the "relation of Heaven and man." Ssu-ma Ch'ien, the famous historian of the Han period, and the author of Shih-chi (Historical Records), stated the purpose of his work as follows: "I want hereby to elucidate the relation of Heaven and man, to discern its historical development from Past to Present, and to state my distinctive views." This expresses clearly the academic aim of ancient Chinese thinkers.

Thinkers both before and after Ssu-ma Ch'ien emphasized the relation of Heaven and man. What is called Heaven in ancient China had various implications, but after the middle period of the Warring States most thinkers mean mainly nature by Heaven. When Confucius speaks about "the Mandate of Heaven" in the Spring and Autumn period, and when Mo Tzu talks about the "Will of Heaven" in the early period of the Warring States, what they refer to as Heaven is invariably the Supreme Master of the World. When in the middle period of the Warring States Chuang-tzu speaks about the contrast between Heaven and man, and when in the late period of the Warring States Hsun-tzu stresses the distinction between Heaven and man, they also mean boundless nature. When Tung Chung-shu in the Han Dynasty considers Heaven as "the supreme ruler of hundreds of deities," he is referring to God with a will. Wang Ch'ung thinks of Heaven as the celestial body which includes the sun, the moon and all the stars; Chang Tsai of the Song Dynasty means by Heaven the boundless expanse of the great wild, that is, actually the totality of nature. Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi mean by Heaven the supreme entity of the universe.

In short, what most thinkers refer to as Heaven is the vast objective world, actually, vast nature; while what is referred to as man is mankind or human society. Hence, the relationship between Heaven and man is actually the relationship between man and nature. Around this issue, the various schools of thought begin their disputes.

SEPARATION AND UNITY OF HEAVEN AND MAN

Generally speaking, the doctrines concerning the relationship between Heaven and man in Chinese philosophy can be divided into two types. One type lays comparatively greater stress on the unity of Heaven and man, while the other stresses the separation of the two. The doctrines stressing the unity of Heaven and man are much more influential; nevertheless those stressing the separation of the two, though held only by a minority of thinkers, make a distinctive contribution.

The doctrine stressing "the unity of Heaven and man" comes from Mencius who put forward the proposition that "to know (human) nature is to know Heaven." But how is this so? According to Mencius, human nature is given by Heaven--derived from Heaven--so the two are interconnected. Heaven in Mencius' sense has a double meaning: both the supreme ruler and the supreme law of necessity. Though he gives neither a clear definition of Heaven nor a detailed demonstration of the proposition that to know nature is to know Heaven, yet his view that nature and Heaven are interconnected is quite influential. Tung Chung-shu held that "Heaven and man resemble each other," believing that the structure of the human body and that of the heavenly bodies are similar: in Heaven there are 12 months and more than 360 days in a year, while in man there are 12 major joints and 366 minor joints in the bones; Heaven has 4 seasons while man has 4 limbs; Heaven has sun and moon, while man has ears and eyes. As this view is obviously quite far-fetched, later thinkers seldom accepted it.

In the Song Dynasty, Chang Tsai definitely put forward the proposition of "the coincidence of Heaven and man." By this Chang Tsai means principally the unity of the "heavenly ways" and human nature. What he terms "heavenly ways" refers to the total process of nature as a whole; and what he terms "human nature" refers to the most fundamental attributes of man as an existential being. He believes that the identity of the content of the heavenly ways with those of human nature consists in the changes and variations arising from internal contradictions. He says: "What is meant by nature and heavenly ways is nothing but change." "What is called Way is the Great Harmony which implies the nature of the interaction of floating and sinking, rising and falling, moving and being static." Chang Tsai objects to the separation of Heaven and man, stressing that mankind originates from Heaven and Earth, is able to know heaven, and that this knowledge is actually Heaven's self-knowledge.

The theory of Cheng Yi is somewhat different from that of Chang Tsai. He affirms that heavenly and human ways are the same. What he calls heavenly ways refer to the general laws of nature, while human ways refer to the supreme norms of human life; he believes that the two are identical. The content of heavenly ways are Yuan, Heng, Li and Zhen, i.e., birth, growth, fulfillment and maturity. Later on, this idea is further elaborated by Chu Hsi, who considers Yuan as the origin of all things on earth: "It is spring in season and human-heartedness in man." Heng is the growth and thriving of all things on earth: "It is summer in season and rites in man." Li is the flowering and fructifying: "It is autumn in season and righteousness in man." Zhen is the maturity of fruits: "It is winter in season and wisdom in man." Thus Chu Hsi, drawing a forced analogy between the natural laws of vegetable growth and the moral principles of human life, commits the mistake of far-fetchedness. Yet Cheng and Chu are not altogether without reason in believing that there is a certain relevant relationship between the general laws of nature and the moral principles of mankind.

Concerning the traditional idea of the coincidence of Heaven and man, one problem as in need of explanation. According to scientific research, people in primitive society did not distinguish the human from the external world; primitive people did not possess self-consciousness and perceived no distinction or opposition between man and nature. Only after the dawn of civilization was man distinguished from nature and only then was the distinction and opposition between the two was fully realized. This is called human self-consciousness.

Is it true then that the coincidence of Heaven and man in ancient China is similar to the confusion of man and nature in primitive ways of thinking? This requires an historical and logical investigation, as the idea of the coincidence of Heaven and man was formulated in ancient China in a period when Chinese civilization had long been developed. Is it possible that philosophical idea goes back to the primitive stage of thought? According to historical records, in remote antiquity before the legendary monarchs Yao and Sun, there was indeed a distinction between Heaven and man: that is, a severance of the ties between Earth and Heaven in the traditional Zhuan Xu period. According to tradition, "men and deities were all mixed up before the period of Monarch Zhuan Xu, when every human being could make direct contact with the deities. Then Zhuan Xu separated men from the deities, making it certain that Heaven is Heaven and Earth is Earth, so that people on Earth could not make direct contact with Heaven. This is the so-called "severance of ties between Earth and Heaven."

In my view, this "severance of ties" implies the distinction of man from nature. What is more, as Zi Chan in the Spring and Autumn period had already drawn a clear distinction between heavenly and human ways, it seems unlikely that Mencius in the Warring States period would fail to reach the stage of distinguishing Heaven and man. The so-called coincidence of Heaven and man is then a re-affirmation of the unity of Heaven and man on the basis of an affirmation of the distinction between the two--it is a dialectical or more advanced way of thinking.

Hsun-tzu and Liu Yu-xi of the Tang Dynasty objected to the coincidence of Heaven and man and stressed the distinction between the two. Hsun-tzu declares: "The one who well understands the difference between Heaven and man can be said to be supreme among men." The one who is supreme among men is the loftiest personality, and necessarily knows the difference between Heaven and man. Hsun-tzu puts forward the famous proposition that "the Heavenly ways are constant--it neither exists for the sake of the good emperor Yao nor desists because of the evil king Jie." He believes that nature has its own objective laws of necessity which have nothing to do with order or disorder, fortune or misfortune in human society. Heaven and man each have different functions. "Heaven has its seasons, Earth its treasures and man his order." He believes in the transformation of nature in the sense of "harnessing the Mandate of Heaven in order to use it"--an idea which is often stressed in the history of Chinese philosophy.

Liu Yu-xi put forward the proposition that Heaven and man triumph over each other. He thought that "Heaven is the greatest among shapes," while "man is the best among animals." Thus Heaven and man have distinctive functions: the function of Heaven is to "reproduce," and thus it is able to give birth to all things on earth; while the function of man is to "establish laws," and thus it is able to establish standards for the judgment of right and wrong. In the natural world, the strong are superior and the powerful dominate the weak; in human society, however, a code of behavior is established according to which the worthy are superior and no one can dominate others by means of power. This awareness of the distinction between natural laws and moral criteria is profound.

Chang Tsai, though declaring that Heaven and man coincide, also acknowledges that "Heaven and man have reason to triumph over each other. While stressing the unity of heavenly ways with human nature, he also acknowledges the distinction between Heaven and man. Yet he strongly advocates the coincidence of Heaven and man. This makes it clear that the conception of the coincidence of Heaven with man does not exclude a separation of Heaven from man.

MAN BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH

Although the theories in Chinese philosophy concerning the relationship between Heaven and man can be divided into two types, these types share quite a few basic elements. For example, most thinkers affirm that man is born of Heaven and Earth, and enjoys an outstanding position between Heaven and Earth; that is to say, they all affirm that man is a product of nature and possesses in nature a position superior to all other things.

Mencius says: "Heaven has long given birth to people," thereby affirming that man is born by Heaven. "Heaven and Earth are the origins of life," and "the union of Heaven and Earth gives birth to all things," thereby affirming that man is born by Heaven and Earth. Tung Chung-shu says: "Heaven, Earth and Man are the origins of all things. Heaven gives them birth. Earth gives them nourishment and Man gives them perfection." This attitude affirms, on the one hand, man's initiative and acknowledges, on the other, that Man is born of Heaven. Liu Yu-xi says: "The capability of Heaven is to give birth to all things while the capability of man is to rule all things," acknowledging thereby both man's initiative to rule all things and his birth of Heaven and Earth.

Chang Tsai elucidates the relationship between Heaven, Earth and Man in more figurative language. He writes in Xi Ming (West Inscription), that "Qian (Heaven) is Father while Kun (Earth) is Mother. . . . People are born of the same parents as mine; and things are my companions." He compares the relationship between Heaven and man to that between parents and children, vividly illustrating the fact that man is born of Heaven and Earth.

In the meantime, most thinkers affirm that mankind has a higher value than birds and beasts. Xiao Jing (Classic of Filial Piety) thus records the remarks of Confucius: "Man is the most valuable according to the nature of Heaven and Earth." Although it is not certain whether these are the remarks of Confucius himself, nevertheless they represent the basic viewpoints of the Confucian school. Mencius affirms that "Everybody has a value appropriate to himself," that is, everybody has his own inherent values.

Hsun-tzu clearly points out the similarities and differences between man and inorganic matter and those between man and all other living things, thus illustrating man's value. He says:

Fire and water have energy but no life; grass and trees have life but no sense; birds and beasts have sense but no righteousness. Man, however, has all of them: energy, life, sense and also righteousness. So man is the most valuable under Heaven.

Beings existing in the world fall into 4 levels: water and fire are inorganic matter, they are material being with no life; grass and trees are vegetable, they have life but no sense; birds and beasts are animals, they have sense but no moral consciousness. Man has material being, life, sense and also moral consciousness, so he is the most valuable.

Tung Chung-shu explains in more detail man's moral consciousness:

Man receives his Mandates from Heaven, so he is different from and superior to all other living things. At home he has the kinship of fathers and sons and brothers; outside the family he has the relationship of monarchs and subjects, superiors and subordinates; in daily encounters and gatherings, he acts according to the order of old and young, senior and junior; he gracefully observes ceremony in social intercourse and joyfully harbors kindness in loving others--that is why man is so valuable.

This attitude considers the major content of morality to be the ethical relationship between father and son, monarch and subject old and young. Here the hierarchical relationships between monarch and subject, superior and subordinate are regarded as human values. Though this clearly indicates the limitations of that era, it is of great significance in characterizing human life as the ethical relationships between father and son, old and young.

Yi Zhuan (Book of Changes), a theoretical work of the Confucian school in the Warring States period, regards Heaven, Earth and Man as "the three gifts," clearly affirming man's significant position between Heaven and Earth. Lao-tzu, the representative work of the Taoist school, regards Tao (the way of nature), Heaven, Earth and Man as "the four greatest": "Tao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and Man is also great. That Man is one of "the four greatest within the realm" affirms man's outstanding position as distinguished from other things.

This ideological trend to affirm man's significant position between Heaven and Earth also represents the common views of thinkers in the Tang, Song, Ming and Qing Dynasties.

WHAT ATTITUDE SHOULD MAN TAKE TOWARDS NATURE?

How should man handle his relationship with nature, that is, what attitude should one take towards nature? This is the first question to be solved in human life. Concerning such a question there are three doctrines in ancient Chinese philosophy: first, Chuang-tzu's doctrine of letting nature run its own course and following it; second, Hsun-tzu's doctrine of transforming nature; third, the doctrine of the harmony of Heaven and man in Yi Zhuan.

Chuang-Tzu

It is Chuang-tzu's belief that nature was originally harmonious and perfect but that after man acquired knowledge and invented quite a few techniques, nature's harmonious and perfect state of being was destroyed. Hence, the basic principle of life is to clear away all artificiality and return to primitive nature. Chuang-tzu's ideological program is as follows: "Do no damage to Tao by intellect and give no aid to Heaven through human resources." "Follow the course of nature instead of adding anything to it artificially."

Chuang-tzu makes use of the horse as a metaphor to reprimand the fault of doing damage to nature. According to him, "the hoofs of a horse are able to tread on dew and snow, while the hairs of a horse can protect it from wind and chill"; it eats grass and drinks water and raises its hoofs to jump--originally it led a leisurely and carefree life. But then Bo Le claims to be good at handling horses and uses many methods to train them: running, galloping and adorning them. First, they suffer from the bit and tassels held in their mouths, then they are threatened by whips. The horses can no longer lead a leisurely and carefree life, and many of them die of injuries. People in remote antiquity "weave to dress and plough to eat, leading a carefree and unrestrained life. But ever since the sages invented Ren (human-heartedness) and Yi (righteousness), man began to go after knowledge and wealth; they entered into rivalry with each other and there has been no peace for them."

Chuang-tzu thus comments on the distinction between Heaven and man: "What is Heaven? What is man"? "Oxen and horses have four legs--that is heaven; to halter up the horse and pierce through the muzzle of the ox--that is human." To be natural is heaven and to change nature is human. Chuang-tzu and his school totally deny man-made values, and demand a return to the original state of nature.

Hsun-Tzu

Hsun-tzu's position is opposite to, and critical of, Chuang-tzu: "Obsessed by Heaven Chuang-tzu has no knowledge of man." Where Chuang-tzu sings the praises of Heaven but cannot comprehend the meaning of man's initiative, Hsun-tzu stresses the importance of transforming nature. He says:

Is it not far better to foster and manage Heaven as a thing than merely to wonder at its greatness? Is it not far better to subdue the Mandate of Heaven in order to use it than merely to follow it and sing its praises? Is it not far better to deal with the present season and use it than merely to watch and wait for the proper seasons? Is it not far better to give full play to one's initiative and transform things than to follow the natural course of things and highly praise it? Is it not far better to take actual control of things in order not to miss them than merely to think about them as external objects?

Here the ideal is that of `subduing Heaven,' `transforming things` and 'handling things` that is to insist on transforming and harnessing nature.

It is Hsun-Tzu's belief that the ideal of human life should be as follows: "To form an overall view of both Heaven and Earth and make full use of all things there"; "to utilize to the full all things covered by Heaven and carried by Earth"; to transform nature and make use of all things in nature in order to improve human life.

Hsun-tzu puts forward the ideal of transforming nature, yet he pays no attention to research on nature. He says: "To be good at the utilization of things but not to strain oneself to probe into their whys and wherefores: that is a gentleman's attitude towards Heaven and Earth and all things thereof." As a matter of fact, it is essential to have a good knowledge of the laws of things in order to use them; it is impossible "to be good at the utilization of things" without comprehending their whys and therefores. Such is the drawback of the theory of Hsun-tzu.

Yi-Zhuan

Quite different from Chuang-tzu and Hsun-tzu, Yi Zhuan puts forward the idea of the harmony of Heaven and man. According to the ancient tradition, Yi Zhuan is attributed to Confucius and its ideas had been taken belong to Confucius. Yet in recent years most historians of philosophy believe that Yi Zhuan belongs to the Warring States period--or rather that it does not belong to one person and one period but is the joint work of Confucian scholars who taught Zhou Yi (The Book of Changes) during the warring states period; some of its chapters were written before Hsun-tzu and others after him.

Xiang Zhuan (The Book of Signs) in Yi Zhuan puts forward the principle of "handling the ways of Heaven and Earth and helping towards the readjustment of Heaven and Earth." Its main implication is to adjust the role of natural laws and assist nature in its change. In the same book Xi Ci Zhuan puts forward the ideal of "having a good knowledge of all things and applying Tao to all the land under Heaven"; of "encompassing all the changes between Heaven and Earth and bringing all things to fulfillment." This latter expression has a definite meaning, i.e., to adjust the changes of nature and to help bring all things to perfect fulfillment.

Wen Yan Zhuan in Yi Zhuan describes an ideal personality as "sharing the same virtue with Heaven and Earth." Wen Yan Zhuan says: "A noble gentleman is one who shares the same virtue with Heaven and Earth; . . . he precedes Heaven, yet Heaven does not go against it; he succeeds Heaven and follows it." A noble gentleman is actually a great and lofty personality; his virtue coincides with that of Heaven and Earth. To precede Heaven is to guide nature before it undergoes any changes, and to succeed Heaven is to conform to nature after its changes. Being able both to guide the changes of nature and to be suited to the changes, he realizes the harmony of Heaven and man.

Yi Zhuan contains such ideas as "handling the ways of Heaven and Earth and helping towards the readjustment of Heaven and Earth," and also "encompassing all the changes between Heaven and Earth and bringing all things to fulfillment." These are quite simple propositions, but they put forward a comparatively comprehensive dialectical viewpoint, e.g., that we must both grasp the functions of natural laws and adjust the processes in the changes of nature; that we must acknowledge the objectivity of natural changes and their laws, on the one hand, and affirm the initiative of the subject, on the other.

Chuang-tzu demands a return to nature. Yet, as a matter of fact, it is quite natural for man to evolve from a simple primitive state to a sophisticated era of civilization. On the contrary, it is quite unnatural for man to reject civilized life and return to primitive simplicity--this is the inherent paradox of Taoism. Nevertheless, the Taoists demand that no damage be done blindly to nature and that "no destruction be inflicted upon things" is a significant warning to civilized society.

Hsun-tzu's ideal of transforming nature is quite a brilliant idea, but he fails to find any effective means of doing so.

Yi Zhuan puts forward the principle of "handling the ways of Heaven and Earth and helping towards the readjustment of Heaven and Earth." This is described mainly in terms of agricultural production, and in its 2,000 years of history this principle has been applied mainly to agricultural production: different measures being taken according to the changes of the four seasons. The practical significance of the principle is to maintain ecological balance.

In ancient China, none of the theories concerning the relation between man and nature, whether of the Confucian or the Taoist school, regarded that relationship as antagonistic. Rather, the two are seen as interdependent and the perfect harmony of Heaven and man is held to be the supreme ideal. This viewpoint, even from the perspective of the present day, has profound meaning.

Peking University

Beijing, People's Republic of China