If philosophical ideas treat the problems of the true, the good, and the beautiful, does traditional Chinese philosophy make a valuable or unique contribution in this regard? I think it does, and very remarkably. We can approach this issue from two aspects: one is the content of its thought, the other is its attitude toward life; both aspects are closely related.

Regarding the issue of the true, the good, and the beautiful, three propositions in traditional Chinese philosophy have exerted an extended influence over Chinese thought: namely, the "integration of heaven with man," which inquires into the unity of the world; the "integration of knowledge with practice," which concerns the problem of an ethical norm; and the "integration of feeling with scenery," which involves the creation and appreciation of artistic works.

THE INTEGRATION OF HEAVEN WITH MAN

How to define the two concepts of "heaven" and "man" varies with different philosophers. Nevertheless, the "Way of Heaven" refers to the basics of the universe or the universe as a whole; the "way of man" often refers to the society of man or man himself. The relationship between heaven and man has always been the fundamental issue studied by Chinese thinkers.

Sima Qian called his Historical Records a book that "probes into the relations between heaven and man." Dong Zhongshu described what he saw as a branch of learning that "studies how man is related to heaven." He Yan, one of the founders of the metaphysics of the Wei and Jin dynasties, called another founder, Wang Bi, a philosopher "qualified to discuss the relations between heaven and man." Tao Hongjing, the true founder of the Maoshan sect of China's Daoism, said only Yan Huan, another Daoist leader, understood that "what he had in mind" was the problem "between heaven and man."

The "relationship between heaven and man" has been explained by different theories in traditional Chinese philosophy. For example, Xunzi required that a "distinction be made between heaven and man." Zhuangzi theorized that "those who are ignorant of heaven know nothing about man." Furthermore, the question of "relations between heaven and man" has often found expression in the discussion about the relation between "nature" and the "Confucian ethical code." Nevertheless, the mainstream of traditional Chinese philosophy has taken as its main task the demonstration or explanation of how "heaven is integrated with man."

Confucius said more about "human affairs" and less about "the Mandate of Heaven." Nonetheless, he also believed that "what the saint says" is in keeping with "the Mandate of Heaven." Mencius, is the first philosopher to propose the idea of the "integration of heaven with man" in a complete sense. For example, he said: "Do with all your heart, know your lot, and understand heaven"; "keep up with heaven and earth above and below." Even though Xunzi advocated that a "distinction be made between heaven and man," his fundamental goal was to "bend the will of Heaven to our use" so that "Heaven" would be integrated with man. Laozi of the Daoist school urged: "Man follows earth, earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Way, and the Way follows nature." Even Zhuangzi who was "ignorant of heaven and knows nothing about man" had this to say: "Heaven and earth live side-by-side with me and all things on earth are identified with me." He also said that the superior man can "communicate with heaven, earth, and spirit." Dong Zhongshu preached the idea that "heaven and man respond to each other"; he argued that the two were integrated.

Metaphysics during the Wei and Jin dynasties focused its discussion on the relationship between "nature" and "the Confucian ethical code." Even though Ji Kang and Ruan Ji advocated that the "ethical code be overstepped and nature followed," the mainstream of the metaphysical school stressed that the "ethical code" be reconciled with "nature." As Wang Bi embraced the idea that "the intrinsic and the extrinsic are like one," he urged that "the essentials (Nature and the Way of Heaven) be upheld to rule the nonessentials (ethical code and mundane affairs). In stressing that "the intrinsic and the extrinsic are like one," Guo Xiang believed "there is no intrinsic beyond the extrinsic." Therefore he concluded that "heaven is the general term for all things on earth."

By the time of the Song Dynasty, the Confucian philosopher Zhou Dunyi noted in more explicit terms: "A saint shares virtue with heaven and earth," and "a saint aspires to heaven." Zhang Zai stated in his West Inscription: "That which exists between heaven and earth is my intrinsic being; that which commands heaven and earth is my character." The two Chengs theorized that "the intrinsic and the extrinsic come from the same source" and stated: "In heaven it is destiny, in man it is character, and it is the heart that commands the body. They are actually one and the same." Zhu Xi held that "Heaven is man, and man is heaven. Since this man is born, heaven rests in him." He added: "A saint . . . is integrated with heaven."

Wang Yangming said: "The heart is heaven. Stressing the importance of the heart upholds heaven, earth, and all things." "Man is actually one with heaven, earth and all things." "The heart has no intrinsic content but takes the response of heaven, earth, and all things its content." Later Wang Fuzhi advanced the idea that man moves along with the vaporization of Heaven to explain why Heaven is integrated with man. "Destiny is realized by days and character is formed by days." "There is not a day that heaven stops thinking of destiny, and there is not a day that man does not submit his destiny to Heaven."

In traditional Chinese philosophy the major thinkers, whether materialist or idealist, all talked about the problem of "integration of Heaven with man" An analysis of their theories brings us to the following general conclusions:

First, in traditional Chinese philosophy, the concept of the `integration of Heaven with Man' expresses the idea of observing things in their entirety. It is a direct description, rather than a detailed analysis. We can call it a directly perceived `overall concept.'

Second, in traditional Chinese philosophy, the basic argument for the idea of the `integration of Heaven with Man' is that `The intrinsic and the extrinsic are like one.' The unity of the ways of Heaven and man is `both intrinsic and extrinsic.' The Way of Heaven serves intrinsically and the way of man extrinsically. The result can be termed an `absolute' of `unity.'

Third, traditional Chinese philosophy does not see the `way of man' as something rigid. Furthermore, it sees in the `Way of Heaven' liveliness and unending vitality. `Heaven moves along a healthy track, and a gentleman should make unremitting efforts to improve himself.' That human society should move forward and man should improve himself is due to the necessity of keeping up with the development of the `Way of Heaven.' This can be termed the unlimited `concept of development.'

Fourth, in traditional Chinese philosophy, `Heaven' is object, and the `way of man' must be brought in line with the `Way of Heaven.' However, `man' is the heart of heaven and earth; he should install a heart for heaven and earth. Without `man,' heaven and earth would have no vitality, rationality or morality. This can be called the `humanistic concept' of ethics.

The four above-mentioned concepts comprise the total implication of the idea of "the integration of heaven with man" in traditional Chinese philosophy.

THE INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE WITH PRACTICE

The problem of "knowledge and practice" is an issue of the theory of knowledge. In traditional Chinese philosophy, however, it is more a problem of ethics and morality. If the question of the theory of knowledge had not been linked to the question of ethics, it would have been difficult for it to be passed down as a part of the traditional Chinese philosophy. Therefore the problem of a theory of knowledge is often also the problem of ethics. This is why the philosophers advocated that man not only seek "knowledge" but also pay special attention to "conduct" (practice).

What is the "good"? The criterion for the "good" can vary, but, according to traditional Chinese philosophy, a unity of "knowledge" and "practice" must be regarded as a prerequisite. From the history of Chinese philosophy contains many explanations of the relationship between knowledge and conduct. In History Classic [Chapter I, "On Destiny"] it was said long ago that "it is not difficult to know, but difficult to put into practice." Later the two Chengs advocated: "Knowledge precedes practice." Zhu Xi was of the opinion that "knowledge and practice each give rise to the other." Wang Fuzhi theorized that "practice precedes knowledge." And Sun Zhongshan advanced the idea that "to know about a thing is more difficult than to do it."

Taking things as a whole, however, the concept of the "integration of knowledge with practice" actually has run through traditional Chinese philosophy from beginning to end. Starting from the time of Confucius, the "agreement of one's words with one's deeds" has always been used as an ethical criterion to differentiate a gentleman from a villain. Said Confucius: "A gentleman feels it a shame not to be able to match his words with actions." Mencius stressed "intuitive knowledge" and "intuitive ability." Even though he regarded the four factors including the "sense of pity" as inherent, he thought it necessary to "foster and enhance" benevolence, righteousness, rite and wisdom, which had already become moral codes. As they could be acquired only through moral practice, he advocated that "a noble spirit be cultivated." Xun Zi stressed "practice" as the purpose of seeking "knowledge"; at the same time, he also admitted the guidance "knowledge" provided for "practice": "One who practices it knows it; one who knows it is a saint." As a saint, therefore, one must "integrate knowledge with practice."

By the Song Dynasty, the Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi, regardless of his opinion that "knowledge precedes practice," argued in terms of morality and self-cultivation that "one who knows but cannot practice is one who does not truly know." Therefore Huang Zongxi noted: "Cheng already had the idea of integrating knowledge with practice" [Academic Files of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Volume LXXV]. Zhu Xi inherited Cheng Yi's theory that "knowledge precedes practice," but he stressed in particular that "knowledge and practice are mutually dependent" and that "efforts on knowledge and practice should be pushed forward side-by-side." He reasoned: "In terms of sequence, knowledge precedes; in terms of importance, practice is more important." Therefore some people described Cheng and Zhu as theories of "integration of knowledge with practice, with emphasis on the latter." Even though "knowledge" is the foundation of "practice," "knowledge is shallow when knowledge has just been acquired and is yet to be put into practice." "When one personally experiences it, his knowledge will be deeper, different from what he knew before." Zhu Xi stressed "practice" because he basically regarded "knowledge" and "practice" as an issue of morality. This is why he remarked:

Wherever the good is, one must practice it. Having practiced it long enough, it will become identified with oneself. Having identified with it, it will become a part of oneself. Failing to practice it, the good remains the good, and oneself remains oneself; they have nothing to do with each other.

Traditional Chinese philosophy often advocated "practicing the Way." This idea had perhaps a twofold implication: One was to "take the Way as the intrinsic content," another to practice the "intrinsic way," namely, earnestly to practice the "intrinsic way" one advocated, for it is not merely an issue of understanding.

Wang Yangming's theory of "integration of knowledge with practice" is broadly known, but the common understanding of it is not totally correct. By quoting his remark, "Practice begins once an idea is struck upon," people often describe him as "ascribing practice to knowledge" and "taking knowledge to be practice." In fact, Wang Yangming did not equate "knowledge" with "practice" completely. The remark that "practice begins once an idea is struck upon" was made in the context of morality and self-cultivation. Immediately after that, he added: "If the idea is not good, we have to overcome it so that the not-good idea will not lay hidden in our hearts." He also said: "A close and solid knowledge is where practice lies and a conscious and precise practice is where knowledge lies. Efforts for knowledge and practice were originally inseparable. Only scholars in later ages split them into two and lost the essence of knowledge and practice. In regard to the relations between knowledge and practice, Wang explained clearly: "Knowledge gives idea to practice, and practice is the effort made by knowledge. Knowledge is the beginning of practice and practice is the end result of knowledge." From the angle of the theory of knowledge, Wang Yangming could be suspected of "including practice in knowledge." In the perspective of morality and self-cultivation, however, his emphasis on "the integration of knowledge with practice" had a positive significance.

Between the Ming and Qing dynasties, Wang Fuzhi advanced the idea that "practice precedes knowledge" and "practice can also gain knowledge." However, he still stressed "the integration of knowledge with practice when addressing the issue of ethics. He opined that "knowledge and practice complementing each other is use, and the two progressing alongside each other constitutes achievement." He criticized Wang Yangming's idea of "the integration of knowledge with practice" and called Wang "ignorant of the fact that they each have their own use and complement each other." Nevertheless, Wang Fuzhi, too, was an advocator of "the integration of knowledge with practice." He said:

In saying that someone is engaged in pursuing knowledge and practice we mean he devotes himself to the pursuit of knowledge and makes every effort to practice. Because of his devotion and efforts, achievements can be made and divided. Since achievements can be made and divided, an order of succession can be established, the antecedent and the subsequent can complement each other. From knowledge one knows what is being practiced, and from practice one practices what is being known. Thus it can be said that the two progress alongside and therefore produce achievements.

That knowledge and practice can progress alongside each other arises because in the final analysis the two constitute the moral realm. According to Wang Fuzhi's opinion:

A wise man is one who knows the rites. A man of ritual is one who practices knowledge. In practicing knowledge, all rituals will be properly performed; in knowing the rites all essentials will go to the mind. Thus one will improve oneself with each passing day and there will be no end to it.

A saint "combines his intelligence with sincerity. He practices what he knows and what he practices becomes his knowledge." This is how a man should behave as envisaged by traditional Chinese philosophy.

In the study of traditional Chinese philosophy the presently prevailing viewpoint asserts that "since the Song and Ming dynasties the neo-Confucianists, when discussing knowledge and practice, often confuse this issue of the theory of knowledge with the issue of ethics," and insists that this is where the limitations and mistakes of ancient Chinese philosophers lay. Here, I feel, two questions must be discussed.

First, neo-Confucianists since the Song and Ming dynasties did not regard knowledge and practice merely as an issue of the theory of knowledge. They thought the issue important precisely because it was related to morality and self-cultivation. The final purpose of their discussion of relations between knowledge and practice was to improve moral cultivation. Therefore it is out of the question to assert that the neo-Confucians confused the issue of the theory of knowledge with that of morality. Second, as an issue of morality and self-cultivation, the theory and viewpoint of unity between knowledge and practice cannot be without positive significance. Ethically, knowledge and practice cannot be separated into two ends, for it is necessary that "knowledge be integrated with practice." The remark, made by Wang Yangming, that "knowledge is the purpose of practice and practice is the work of knowledge; knowledge is the beginning of practice and practice is the end result of knowledge" can be seen as the best summary ever made by ancient Chinese philosophers on this issue.

THE INTEGRATION OF FEELING WITH SCENERY

"The integration of feeling with scenery" is an aesthetic issue. Wang Guowei discussed it thoroughly in his Random Talks About Poetry. He said: "Realm is the most important quality in poetry writing. Having realm, a poem is naturally of a high quality and carries famous lines."

What does "realm" mean? Wang explained:

Realm does not refer to scenery alone. Delight, anger, sorrow, and joy are also a realm in man's heart. Therefore a poem that can depict true scenery and true feelings can be said to have realm.

Obviously the term `realm' refers not only to scenery, but to "sentiments" as well. In Jialing Manuscripts Discussing Poetry, Ye Jiaying made a very perceptive explanation about Wang Guowei's realm theory. According to Ye:

The generation of realm depends entirely on our sense of perception. The existence of realm depends entirely on what our sense of perception can reach. Therefore the outside world cannot be called realm before we can reproduce it through the function of our sense of perception. Judging by such a conclusion, the theory of realm as advocated by Wang, as a matter of fact, can be traced to the same origin as the theory of interest by Canglang and the theory of romantic charm by Yan Tingzhi.

Bu Yentu, after Wang Guowei, also said in his Questions and Answers on the Methods of Painting: "Landscape painting is no more than portraying feeling and scenery, and feeling and scenery is realm." This is why Wang Guowei remarked: "When people in the past discussed poetry, they divided the verses into those describing scenery and those depicting feeling. They did not know that all verses describing scenery depict feeling." Obviously, Wang Guowei regarded as the most creative writing literary pieces that "integrate feeling with scenery." However, this aesthetic viewpoint of "integration of feeling with scenery" did not begin with Wang Guowei. Generally speaking, it was in the period of the Wei and Jin dynasties that the theory of China's literature and art truly became an independent branch of learning, and by that time the idea of "integrating feeling with theory" had already emerged. In the Introduction to the Grades of Poetry Zhong Rong said:

Four-characters-to-a-line poems, can be useful if they imply more in fewer words and are modeled upon works of literary excellence. However, the problem is they often involve many words, but connote little content. Therefore few people learn to write them. The five-characters-to-a-line poems occupy the primary position in writing and stand out as the most meaningful among a variety of genres, thus winning the praise of being popular. Isn't it because they are the most detailed and truthful in narrating events, conjuring images, expressing feelings, and portraying things? Therefore there are three approaches to writing poetry: First, implication; second, comparison; third, narration. The idea that there is more to the poem than the words state is what we call implication. Citing things to indicate one's intention is comparison. A direct account of the happening, thus embodying the idea, is narration. Take the three approaches into consideration and choose the most appropriate, enhance it with charm and force and polish it with color so that those who read it will find unlimited meaning and those who listen to it will be stirred. This will be a poem of top quality.

That a "masterpiece" or "superb work" should "express feelings and portray things" was the forerunner of the idea of "the integration of feeling with scenery." Xie Zhen, one of the Later Seven Scholars of the Ming Dynasty, said in Four Seas Poetic Discussions: "Writing poetry rests on feeling and scenery. Neither can work without the other or conflict with the other." He said also: "Poetry is the tool for the portrayal of feeling and scenery. Feeling melts inside, running deep and long; scenery shines on the outside, stretching far and wide." In Poetic Discussions from the Ginger Studio Wang Fuzhi put it even more clearly: "In name feeling and scenery are two things, but in fact they are inseparable."

Those skillful in writing poems have unlimited opportunities to write good ones. In an ingenious piece there is "scenery in feeling and feeling in scenery." "Feeling is generated from amid scenery and scenery is generated from amid feeling. This is why we say scenery is the scenery of feeling, and feeling is the feeling of scenery." "Once feeling is integrated with scenery, witty expressions are readily available." This last sentence perhaps constitutes the basic proposition for China's traditional theory of art and literature, manifesting its basic view of "beauty." In the traditional thinking in China, what is beautiful has always been linked to what is good.

That "the substantial is called the beautiful" refers to a spiritual realm in which one takes noble enjoyment. Having listened to the music of "Wu," Confucius commented: "It has all the beautiful, but not all the good." After listening to the music of "Shao," he remarked: "It has all the good and also all the beautiful." Only music that "has all the good and also all the beautiful" can be regarded as the highest and most ideal. This was said of music, but should apply to other arts as well. An art that "has all the good and also all the beautiful" is designed to elevate man's spiritual realm and help him derive therefrom the highest enjoyment of beauty. Because of this the creator of artistic and literary works must be one who has "realm," and his works must "integrate feeling with scenery."

CHINESE PHILOSOPHY AS THE INTEGRATION OF

HEAVEN WITH MAN: GOAL AND RENEWAL

In regard to the issue of the true, the good and the beautiful, why does traditional Chinese philosophy keep pursuing the three "integrations"? In my opinion, it is because the basic spirit of Chinese philosophy is to teach how one should behave like a a human person. To be a "human person" one must have set a standard for oneself, an ideal of the true, the good and the beautiful. One who has attained such an ideal realm in which "heaven is integrated with man," "knowledge is integrated with practice" and "feeling is integrated with scenery" is a saint. Therefore the prospective for traditional Chinese philosophy lies in bringing the demand for being human in line with the need for the program of modernization and realizing it. One's ideal may find expression in an immense variety of ways, but it is essential to have such an ideal and noble spiritual realm. The three integrations advocated by traditional Chinese philosophy, in fact, constitute a unified realm by which one is human; at least theoretically, they cannot be separated.

The proposition of "the integration of heaven with man," though designed to illustrate the relations between man and the entire universe, was made on the basis of man being the center of the universe. The Golden Mean states: "Honesty is the Way of Heaven; to be honest is the way of man." "An honest man who hits the target without difficulty, arrives at the right idea without brain-wracking, and conforms to the Way without hurry, is a saint." The role of a saint is to "foster a heart for heaven and earth, create a life for living creatures, carry forward peak insights for posterity, and open the way to peace for thousands of generations to come." Therefore a "man" (mainly, the saint) must behave according to the requirements of the Way of Heaven which he should assume it his responsibility to fulfill. Being alive in the world, one must not take a passive attitude; rather, one should "make unremitting efforts to improve oneself" so as to embody the evolution of the immense universe. In this way, one will set oneself a goal, find a reason for one's being, and foster a noble spiritual realm. Since one has set a goal for oneself and has a reason for one's being, the most important thing is to "integrate his knowledge with practice." One must have an ethical standpoint for unifying the two. The three programs and the eight items listed in the Great Learnings tell us the precise reason for this. It says:

The Way of the great learning lies in shedding light on the bright moral principles, being close to the people, and reaching the utmost good. Those in ancient times who wanted to shed light on the bright principles for the world had first to bring order to their own kingdoms. To bring order to their kingdoms they had first to bring their own families to order. To bring their families to order they had first to cultivate their own moral character. To cultivate their own moral character they had first to set their minds straight. To set their minds straight they had first to foster a sincere desire. To foster a sincere desire they had first to carry knowledge to the utmost degree. To carry knowledge to the utmost degree they had first to inquire into the properties of things. Having inquired into the properties of things, they were able to carry knowledge to the utmost degree. Having carried knowledge to the utmost degree, they were able to foster a sincere desire. Having fostered a sincere desire, they were able to set their minds straight. Having set their minds straight, they were able to cultivate their own moral character. Having cultivated their own moral character, they were able to bring their families to order. Having brought their families to order, they were able to bring order to their kingdoms. Having brought order to their kingdoms, the whole world would be at peace.

"Knowledge" must be integrated with "practice." From "inquiring into the properties of things, to carrying knowledge to the utmost degree," to "bringing order to their kingdoms and peace to the world" is a process of cognition and, more importantly, a process of moral practice. Man must have an ideal, and the highest ideal is to "achieve peace" and thus enable human society to attain a realm of "Great Harmony." The basic demand of a society of "great harmony" is that everyone should set for himself a demand, find a reason for his "being," and "not do to others what he does not wish done to himself." Said Confucius: "My way is consistent; it is nothing more than honesty and forbearance." Leading a life in this world, one should behave like a "man," enjoy the pleasure of "being a man" and appreciate the creation of the universe.

In order to have a genuine appreciation of the creation of the universe, one should have the ability to display human creativity, thus reproducing "the creation of the universe." One should display the spiritual realm of man--the why and how a man exists as a man--thereby making it possible for a writer to produce a "masterpiece," for a painting to be a "superb work," and for music to be the "sound of nature." Art requires "integration of feeling with scenery" whereby "feeling is generated amid scenery and scenery is generated amid feeling."

When one enters the realm of creation, one will reach a situation in which the true, the good, and the beautiful are integrated. There lies the meaning of life and the man's highest ideal. Confucius professed: "At the age of seventy, I can do everything as my heart pleases without violating the rule." What he described was probably a realm in which all one did and said was in harmony with the universe, human society, the others, and oneself, both body and mind, inside and outside. This realm of life is, of course, that of the saint.

In my opinion, traditional Chinese philosophy still bears the value of existence precisely because it tells us the way to be human. To be a man is by no means easy. It is even more difficult to be in harmony with nature, society, other people, and oneself in both body and mind, inside and outside. As this is a necessary requirement for life in today's world we cannot underestimate traditional Chinese philosophy; nor should we ignore where its value lies. However, precisely because traditional Chinese philosophy tells us only the reason for being a man, it is inappropriate for us to set undue demands upon it in other respects, nor should it come as a surprise that it is inadequate in certain areas. For example, it does not emphasize issues of logic and the theory of knowledge, nor does it provide a well-conceived demonstration of the structure of its own theory. We should not be overly critical of this.

Under such circumstances, can we further develop traditional Chinese philosophy while appreciating its value? We should and we can. The pre-Qin Dynasty Confucians, aside from the Book of Changs, seldom touched upon problems of ontology. Under the impact of Buddhism, however, neo-Confucians of the Song and Ming dynasties founded a very significant theory of ontology, which made great progress and became neo-Confucianism. As the mainstream of China's traditional philosophy, thinking and culture, Confucian philosophy today has sustained an even heavier impact than in the past. Having profoundly critiqued it, we are now reexamining its value. Is it inconceivable that we redevelop it once again; under the new impact could there not be established a new system with its own logic and theory of knowledge?

Traditional Chinese philosophy should have a third-phase of development because "one must have a reason for being a man." Whether or not this can be developed depends on whether or not it can establish for itself a new system of logic and theory of knowledge. "Man can enhance the Way; not the Way can enhance man": the outcome depends upon our efforts.

Peking University

Beijing, People's Republic of China