CHAPTER VIII

While nature contrasts with human society and the outer world contrasts to the individual, the outer world includes both nature and human society. Thus, the relation between man and nature is actually that between human society and nature, not between an individual and one's outer world. Obviously, an individual can form a relationship with nature but, because one is not able to exist without society, in forming a relationship with nature an individual must act as one of the particles of human society.

Human society has two major problem areas: one is the inner relationship of human society, and the other is the relationship between human society and nature (shortened as the Man-Nature relationship). As these two types of problems interrelate with one another things become rather complicated. The handling of the inner relationship of human society is conditioned by the Man-Nature relationship and dealing with it is conditioned in turn by the inner relationship of human society. Generally speaking, or from an historical point of view, the Man-Nature relationship is basically of greater importance than the inner relationship of human society because nature is the prerequisite for the presence of human society and the material concitions of its existence and development. On the whole, the Man-Nature relationship conditions and influences the solution of the problems of inner relationship. Productive forces are the foundation of the whole history and the final determining cause of the development of society. In order to deal with the problem of the Man-Nature relationship properly, a first requirement is to make clear the line of demarcation between human society and nature, and hence what each of these is.

In a broad sense, nature is the entire universe, including human society. In a narrow sense, it is often juxtaposed with human society, though it actually refers simply to the world excluding human society. Therefore, as far as space is concerned, human society is up to now part of the earth which is extremely small, whereas nature includes the earth and the immense universe outside of earth which is boundless. Where then is the dividing line between nature in the narrow sense and human society? Certainly, a clear-cut demarcation can never be found between human society and nature. In space, it is also difficult to point out where the limitation of human society is. We cannot say that cities are equal to society and suburbs to nature. Nor can we say that the inhabited areas are society and uninhabited areas such as forests and fields are nature. Human society exists in such natural objects as fields, mountains and rivers; it lives in houses, towns and cities; it depends upon sunshine, rain, clothes and food; and it travels about by ships, vehicles and machines. Every animate man or woman is first of all a physical being. Without or outside of nature there can be no human society at all. But nature itself is not indivisible; according to the degree of its relationship with human society, it is divided into the following levels or parts:

(1) Nature which is not known. This part of nature is farthest away from man and known least, but its existence can be assured through the development of science and practice. This is the existence of infinitely large and extremely small things. Finiteness and infinity are closely and indivisibly connected. Infinity exists in and through finiteness; finite objects include and are connected with infinity. The so-called finiteness means limitedness, which presupposes transcendence, but if there is transcendence, then there is no limitedness. Limitedness means transcendence and finitude includes infinity. Therefore, though through sensation we cannot directly grasp infinity, we can know infinity through finiteness by abstract thinking, namely through transcending finiteness in order to grasp and determine infinity. As was said by Engels, in thinking we can "find infinity from finiteness, find eternity from temporality, and affirm it." (Selected Works of Marx and Engels, Beijing, Vol. 3, p. 554.)

(2) Nature that is somewhat known. This refers to nature that is untouched by man, but known to some extent indirectly by means of practice and science; for example, the stars which have already been seen by people, especially the sun and other planets and stars. Although people have not set foot on those stars and planets, they have more or less known them through the naked eye or by means of a telescope and other instruments.

(3) Nature that has been set foot on by man. This refers to nature that is touched by man but has not been transformed, such as the moon, high mountains, deep oceans, the Arctic and Antarctic Poles, etc. Some traces of man have been left, but these places still remain original and primitive with few signs of man.

(4) Nature that is humanized. This concept was used by Karl Marx in his Manuscript of Economics and Philosophy in 1844. This remains under discussion within academic circles both at home and abroad, especially as to its meaning. It refers to the part of nature which is transformed by man but remains in a primitive state, for example, such products of agriculture and animal husbandry as grain, fruits, vegetables, animals, and the fields, water, pastureland, orchards, forests, rivers and land, which help produce these products. To be sure, the degrees of their humanization are different, but they are deeply touched and even marked by man.

(5) Man-made nature. This includes things which do not exist in primitive nature and are produced totally by man, namely, the so-called materialized intellect, e.g., vehicles and ships in ancient times, trains, steamships and aeroplances in recent times, space rockets and electronic computers in modern times, etc. Nature contains most prototypes of these finished objects which are usually created by man. For instance, desks, chairs, benches, bridges and houses are made in obvious imitation of something in nature, but in nature there are no such ready-made things as desks, chairs, benches, bridges and houses. Some things having no archetypes at all in nature, but are created completely by man to meet his own needs after he masters the laws of nature. If flying birds can with difficulty be said to be the archetype of airplane, it is very difficult to find in nature the archetype of space rockets. Telephone, telegraph and TV are created by man purely and simply.

(6) Nature as the human body. This is undoubtedly a kind of natural substance, and surely the nearest to man, for as far as his natural respects are concerned man is simply human body. The ability to know and reform the human body, however, is not necessarily better than that of knowing and transforming other natural substances. Due to this peculiarity, we view human body as special level of nature.

Obviously, the limits of these six levels are not quite clear and have been changing continuously. Some levels are contained in others. Nature that is somewhat known includes that which bears the footprint of man; this includes humanized nature, which in turn includes man-made nature. Therefore, the difference between them must not be emphasized absolutely, nor should they be regarded as isolated levels. Nature is an integrated whole, every part or level of which has a certain distinctiveness. But as they are all objective realities, and their movements, changes and development occur regularly, they can be known and transformed.

As noted above, human society, which in a broad sense is also a part or level of nature, is the highest level of nature. In a narrow sense, however, it is not nature but exists side-by-side with nature. The relationship of human society and nature takes it in its narrow sense.

No doubt human society is formed by animate individuals. After the apes in the forests changed into human beings under certain conditions, men created productive forces in the course of transforming nature with tools. Meanwhile, people formed productive relations, and on this basis formed social and political institutions and social ideology, i.e., a superstructure; thus, human society came into being.

Social movement has three major levels: productive forces, productive relations and superstructure; among these the level of productive relations is intermediate, linking the other two so that they form two contradictions. Productive relations, combining all the productive elements, contradict productive forces. In connection with superstructure and as the social economic structure, productive relations form contradictions between superstructure and economic base. The fundamental nature of superstructure, however, is decided by its economic base, as it has no direct connection with productive forces. These forces influence superstructure only inasmuch as they reflect the economic base as their intermediate foundation. Therefore, superstructure does not in general circumstances directly contradict productive forces.

Productive forces are the basis of history because people cannot stop consuming for one day, and therefore society cannot stop producing for one day. Production is always social production. People taking part in social production occupy a particular economic position and have their own ideology and socio-political ideas. They also participate in various kinds of economic, political and cultural activities. Therefore, the two contradictions have been in existence since human society came into being, and will exist as long as society continues to exist. They permeate society, determining its nature and pushing it forward. They are the fundamental contradictions of social movement.

Nature is the necessary condition of the existence and development of society. Thus far, the earth is the only planet found suitable to human life; without it man cannot exist at all. Modern sciences have told us that there is no water or air on the moon, but only waste sand and gravel. It is a deathly static planet on which no living things exist. The atmosphere of Mars has too low a pressure; it consists mainly of carbon dioxide with little oxygen. Its temperature often goes down to minus 130 degrees centigrade. Hence, no living things are able to survive there. The atmosphere on the surface of Venus is very thick; its pressure is a hundred times that of earth and consists largely of carbon dioxide. Day and night the temperature is approximately 500 degrees centigrade so that any living things would be burned to ashes. Mercury is as bleak, desolate and deathly static as the moon, without any air. The temperature varies drastically from day to night: at night it reaches minus 160 degrees centigrade, while in the day it may be as high as 330 degrees centigrade. Thus, apart from the earth, we have so far found no places in the solar system with conditions suitable for life. Whether or not other galaxies suitable for life can be found in the future is unpredictable.

On earth the natural surroundings continuously provide human beings with materials for life and resources for production and building. These include ecological or "permanent" resources such as sun radiation, temperature, water, etc. Such resources differ in varying degrees in different regions. If people adapt their measures to local conditions and give full play to their professional knowledge and skills, they can make full and long use of such resources. Biological resources are another example: such animals and plants as forests, pastureland, birds, beasts, fish, insects, fungi, etc., all have the ability of regeneration. With proper usage and scientifically managed and cultivated, they can not only grow ceaselessly, but also reproduce and expand at man's will according to plan. Mineral resources: coal, iron, petroleum and so on which have limited reserves and are basically non-regenerating must be used in a proper and planned manner. If they are exploited and wasted without plan, a crisis of mineral resources is bound to occur which will harm production and life, and give rise to no end of trouble for the future.

In short, the relationship between man and nature is twofold. On the one hand, mankind continuously conquers nature and reforms his geographical surroundings in the process of their development. On the other, mankind is always influenced and conditioned by natural surroundings in the process of conquering and reforming nature. The bridge between these is man's productive activity through which he continuously changes his geographical surroundings and marks nature with his own signs. Meanwhile, natural surroundings, through their influence on productive activity, control and restrict the development of human society and at times even accelerate or retard its development.

Since the beginning of human history, the great changes which have taken place on earth often have been caused by man rather than occurring naturally. Owing to human action nature has undergone enormous changes: this is the humanized or man-made nature we mentioned above. The history of the development of science and technology is the history of knowing and changing nature and of creating material civilization according to its own laws. Man opens vast fields; the forests and grasses grown by man cover the ground; canals and reservoirs are scattered everywhere. The surface of the earth is spotted by cities, towns, houses and roads. Rivers, seas and oceans are filled with boats and ships, large and small. All these greatly change the surroundings for human society. The earth changes with each passing day and these changes are increasingly difficult to limit. As Mao Ze-dong once said:

In good health Goddess be,

With the world's difference surprising her.

If we enter living rooms, factories and shops we find many things which are not only humanized, but man-made. Apart from their raw materials and laws, their appearances, contents, textures and functions are completely created by man. Humanized and man-made nature show man's ability to conquer nature; they are products of his practice, produced for the existence and development of human beings. In this way, man has been reforming the earth and making it more and more suitable to man's living. The more developed man's production, the greater his power to reform nature and the quicker the earth changes. According to this developmental trend the earth will become man's wonderland--a secular paradise--through the efforts of one generation after another.

The activity of every level of human society reforms nature directly or indirectly. Various revolutions and reforms change society, the result of which is the establishment and development of new productive relations and a new social and political system. The reforming of society is for the purpose of creating better conditions for reforming nature. Various spiritual activities are organized to promote the consciousness of reforming nature and society, to strengthen and stimulate man's will to do this, and to accelerate the process. True, there are many passive factors in social activities, such as wrong ideas and deeds, artificial hinderances, deliberate destruction and defects and loopholes in the systems. All these do harm to the cause of reforming the world and cause complications, hesitation, failure and retreat, but history proves that the general tendency is upward and progressive. Man's ability to reform nature and society is under continuous development, as are material and cultural civilization.

Once production, life and science develop to a modern level, a serious question is raised for human society: how to control the changes of nature so that they are profitable to human society rather than harming or even destroying it. At present, some signs indicate that the earth, which has generally been favorable to the development of human beings for thousands of years, may not push forward but, due to man himself, may hinder or even destroy the development of the whole of mankind if it is not able to control the changes of nature. Partial problems occurred not infrequently throughout history and even in modern times. Some areas in Asia Minor have become barren as a result of felling woods. It is said that the reason why Mayan civilization in Central America perished is simply that the Mayans destroyed the ecological balance. Some areas in China suffer from drought and flood due to the felling of woods. As Engels pointed out,

we should not be intoxicated with our triumph against nature. Nature revenges itself on us for each of these triumphs. At its first stage, every triumph brings the results expected, but at the second or third stage, there usually follows a totally different and unpredictable influence which often abolishes the results of the first step.¹

In history, global problems have not yet been central, but since man's ability to reform nature has reached a global level, such problems have begun to emerge. The recently frequently mentioned greenhouse effect caused by the augmentation of carbon dioxide, the increasing reduction of forests and the constant expansion of deserts, increasingly severe pollution of air, river and ocean are international and even global problems. Nuclear war not only would cause unprecedented death and destruction, but could bring on a nuclear winter and a drop in temperature throughout the earth. This would deal a devastating blow to human civilization. It is not impossible for man to kill himself, and the greater the ability to reform nature, the more possible it becomes to do so. But is it possible for man to control nature and avoid such global misfortunes?

Insofar as intellect and the level of science and production are concerned, man has the ability to control the changes of nature. Some objects are completely made by him, such as nuclear weapons, which therefore man must be able to control. Some things are just by-products of activities undertaken by man, for example, pollution of the environment and destruction of the ecological balance. These by-products might not have been known at first, but in modern times they must not be allowed to develop to such an extent that they could cause devastating and irretrievable results. Not only do we have historical lessons, but many contemporary problems have been recognized. Mankind always has the ability to solve the problems it has discovered, but that is not to say that man is sure to solve these problems without many obstructions. He has the preconditions for solving these external problems only after he solves the interior problems of human society. Fundamentally, only by liberating themselves from class exploitation and oppression and becoming masters of society can people become masters of nature.

The development of modern economy, politics and culture has united people from all corners of the world. There is no nation, no race, similar to the Qing people of ancient China in Taohuayuan who lived an isolated life and adopted a closed door policy. In the world-wide human society which has emerged in modern times misfortunes are unavoidable. Because of the difference of social systems and ideologies, the monopolies and strife by capitalist cliques, and the different religious beliefs and interests among countries and races, human society has been divided into various groups. Just as there are alliances and cooperations between them, there are also struggles and wars.

Of course, nuclear war is possible and hence the entire human society, especially those countries possessing nuclear weapons and their leaders, must be fully conscious of the dangers of nuclear war and its serious outcome. They must also know that in nuclear warfare there are no winners, but only losers. This is true, not only of people in the area where the nuclear weapons are used and whose civilization will be damaged at the first blow, but of the entire world which will suffer tremendous misfortune: human civilization will suffer immeasurable damage. The ghost of nuclear weapons produced by man now in turn threatens human existence and development. Since man has produced it, he can certainly abolish it if the proper solution can be found for the contradictions existing between nations and peoples. In our opinion, if we keep in view the global interests of all mankind, it will not be difficult to solve the contradictions between nations and peoples.

Global or universal human interests require first of all acknowledgement of the existence of human interests. If in the previous century global human interests remained abstract, in the present century after the appearance of nuclear weapons and under the conditions of highly developed industry they have become objective. Secondly, we must place global human interests above all others. That is to say, when other interests conflict we must first of all take the global human interests into consideration, and subject other interests to them. One view sees today's world in pluralistic terms according to which every country is a center of interests; all problems are then understood and evolved in these terms. This view contains only a part of the truth. Undoubtedly, every country is a sovereign state and an equal member of the international family; every country has its own right to deal with internal affairs independently, and no other nations have the right to interfere. No nation should bully, oppress or conquer other nations. But in handling international, and especially universal, human problems, we must take into account other nations' interests, and particularly universal human interests.

Placing universal human interests in the first place is in line with Marxism. The ultimate goal of communism is: to liberate the whole of mankind, to fight against class and racial oppression, and to oppose wars of aggression; to safeguard for everyone his right freely and richly to develop his abilities, and to fight against the control, oppression and enslavement of peoples. To realize this goal, we must not think first of the interests of an individual, a nation or a country. We must not think only of ourselves without paying attention to others' interests, benefit ourselves at the expense of others, or take our neighbor's land. In considering international or global problems, we must start from the common interests of mankind, and make joint efforts to realize these. The socialist system is most favorable for developing this idea, but the existence of two different systems does not exclude practicing it. Why can this not be done?

As is known to all, respect for other nation's sovereignty and not to interfere in their internal affairs has become an internationally acknowledged requirement. This has laid the basis for the peaceful solution of disputes among nations. Marxism is against exporting revolution; it advocates the peaceful coexistence of countries of different social systems--which is in line also with the international requirement. As long as every country really admits and seriously carries out this requirement, no international dispute is impervious to solution through negotiation.

Especially when the changes of nature caused by man himself threaten human existence, and when people realize that there is a crushing danger hidden in humanized and man-made nature, people of all nations should unite all the more to fight against the terrible monster man has created. A friend when under control, it becomes an enemy when uncontrolled. In history, when the country was invaded, all classes readjusted their inner relations and united to face their common enemy. Why should we not unite when we face the challenge put forward by nature against mankind?

The Book of Poems (Shijing) says:

Altercate within among brothers,

But unite without against enemies.

Since every nation and race lives on the earth, we are all friends in contrast to nature. Owing to differences in history, systems, interests and ideology, we dispute and struggle against each other, or even use weapons. Now it is time for us to forget the past and deal with nature's threat with united strength. If we let man-made nature lose control and cause disastrous outcomes, our generation will stand condemned through the ages. Problems between countries should be solved through negotiation; problems of each country must be solved by the people of the country themselves.

Peking University

Beijing, People's Republic of China

1. Selected Works of Marx and Engels (Beijing), III, 517.