The Filipino is the end-product of his historical past.¹ In spite of the pluralism in Philippine society, some commonalities are subsumed by the name Filipino. Filipino thought is understood here as the Filipino's world view or philosophy. It is not the philosophy of any individual philosopher as in Western tradition, but rather of the people, its diwa or Volksgeist.² For example, Elements of Filipino Philosophy was a pioneering attempt to explicitate the people's implicit world view. Our role was like that of a linguist who makes the first grammar of a language. The people may not explicitly know their grammar, but they correctly speak their language, and just as a language grows and changes, so does a people and its philosophy.

Filipino philosophy or the people's diwa is what is, not what should be, and as such it has its weakness and strengths. Because it is both dynamic and static, it can be the basis for the Filipino's development since it is his own model. Elitist Filipinos, who have more leanings toward the West than toward their fellow countrymen, are naturally inclined to import Western models in understanding their own people or to invite the common tao to embrace said Western models. The resultas seen in various development attemptshas mostly been disastrous.

Bertrand Russell defined philosophy as "the no-man's land between science and theology, exposed to attack from both sides." Philosophers are often attacked and stereotyped as people who live on their ivory towers. This charge has some basis as illustrated in the history of Western philosophy. Aristotle challenged the philosophical claims of his teacher, Plato and through the centuries philosophical schools have challenged each other across the spectrum from left to right.

The ivory tower mentality has two explanations. First, if philosophy is not grounded on the facts, then the end-product of its musings can be doubtful. Down-to-earth philosophy then must base itself on the facts or, to be more precise, on the findings of social sciences. This type of philosophy begins where the social sciences end. While ancient and medieval philosophy was mostly about being and eternal truths, modern philosophy has turned to humankind as the center and truth as both dynamic and static. In the Indian story of the six blind men who reported differently on the part of the elephant which each touched, the six needed a seventh person to correlate their different findings. That is the job of the philosopher.

Is philosophy then a social science? If one holds the scholastic model of philosophy as a science of beings and eternal truths, then it is in a class by itself. But if we hold that philosophy is primarily about man as being from a higher perspective, then it is a social science. In this second opinion, philosophy begins where the social sciences end. We follow the second opinion. How it is distinguished from the other social sciences is illustrated in this book.

We see the same trend in modern theology. While pre-Vatican II theology based itself on philosophy, contemporary theology tends to base itself more on the broader base of the social sciences. This shift towards anthropocentrism has occurred in both theology and philosophy. The old scholastic theology began in general abstract themes, i.e., God as the perfect Being with metaphysical attributes. The reverse has taken place in our time. Instead of proceeding from God to man, theology now begins with man and ends with God. In the anthropocentric approach, theologians realize the need of the social sciences. If philosophy is then to be truly man-centered, it must remember that the human person is not just a rational animal but is situated in a given time and culture. In this approach philosophy needs the help of the behavioral sciences.

The second reason is that Western philosophy tends to be the product of individual persons. And as the Latin saying goes, Quot capita, tot sententiae. Therefore a hundred individualistic philosophers will produce as many different philosophies.

In our work, we have tried to avoid those two pitfalls. Only after getting the facts from the various disciplines did we attempt philosophical explanation. Secondly, we do not claim that the philosophy we present is our own but the explicitation of the implicit philosophy of Filipinos. Anthropological philosophy is related to world view, which is a part of every culture. That is why every culture has its philosophy.

This synthesis covers the twenty years of our philosophical writings between 1974 and 1994. Prior articles were incorporated into Elements of Filipino Philosophy.³

Towards the end of the first book, we wrote:

Modern empirical sciences are no longer as dogmatic as before. Their conclusions take the side of probability because newer findings can disprove their presuppositions and conclusions. In this study, the writer holds his interpretations of the facts as most probable for the presentuntil disproven by more convincing data.⁴

Twenty years after these lines were written, we stand confirmed and convinced of our interpretation of the common tao's philosophy.

This chapter shall be divided into the following parts: (1) methodologies, (2) the underlying principle or leitmotif, (3) areas of application of the guiding principle; (4) comments for discussion.

METHODOLOGIES

Explicitating of Filipino thought is a methodological task. As gold mining goes through a process of finding and refining the ore until pure gold is obtained, the methodologies aim for a similar process in mining the hidden gold of Filipino thought. The methodologies should be scientific and objective enough to be of use to others.

Several methodologies have been used which actually help or complement each other. Here only the methodologies applied to philosophy will be considered, not those applied to Filipino theology which has been explained elsewhere.⁵ We have used the following: metalinguistic analysis, phenomenology of behavior, comparative oriental philosophy, value ranking, and proverb analysis.

Metalinguistic Analysis

Aristotle arrived at his categories by considering the Greek parts of speech. If he were not a Greek and had to think in a non-Indo-European language his categories would have been different.

Metalinguistic analysis is based on the assumption that languageinsofar as it encodes realityalso reflects the world view or philosophy of the native speakers of the said language. The philosophical insights are derived through inference from words and from linguistic structures. The foregoing chapters of this book have shown the metalinguistic analysis at work.

Although the methodology has been applied only to the three largest Philippine languages (namely, Cebuano Visayan, Tagalog, and Ilocano), other research has attempted to verify the findings in other Philippine languages. The reports received were positive. For instance, one professor from the University of the Philippines intentionally did not read my writings, but tried a statistical approach to discovering the Filipino psyche. After reading my works later, she wrote that the facts obtained through the metalinguistic approach had paralleled her findings through the statistical approach.

There is a difference between semantic analysis and metalinguistic analysis. Semantics is concerned about the nuances of words whereas metalinguistic analysis begins where the former ends. For example, Jocano lists seventeen action processes of Hiligaynon or Western Visayan under the genus of carry, `dara', which have their corresponding translations in the other Philippine languages.⁶ He also mentions fifteen names of rice in all states. We can go through the other areas of concern of the common tao, such as terms used in the making of coconut wine or the technical terms used in cock-fighting. But whether or not these word-splittings have a particular significance in analyzing the world view is another thing. They may or may not be significant, depending on how the words encode a particular world view.

The meanings of words are not sufficiently reflected in a dictionary: the nuances of terms have to be verified in a people's practices' and beliefs. That is why the phenomenology of behavior is a complementary method which may confirm the findings of the first method.

Phenomenology of Behavior

Although Husserl began phenomenology as a rigorous method, not all philosophers who followed him have used it in the same way. This pluralism can be seen in the existentialists and among behavioral scientists.

Phenomenology bases itself on the assumption that truth is inter-subjective, that is, a dialogue between the subject and the object. But does this not have the danger of being impressionistic? The subject's background (education, culture, biases, horizon, etc.) may color his/her interpretation of the objective.

In spite of its inherent dangers, phenomenology also has its counterchecks such as the criterion of coherence. Granted that phenomenology may be as "scientific" as other rigorous methods in the social sciences, introspection remains a legitimate method. For example, Einstein's discoveries in physics were done through introspection because laboratories were not sufficiently adequate to test them. Scientists later verified his findings. Theoreticians have contributed about one-half of present knowledge.

Phenomenology of behavior uses not only personal observations, but also the findings of social scientists.⁷ Where there is a recurring pattern or commonality with the majority of Philippine ethnic groups, we can deduce philosophical insights to explain such behavior. For example, in the case of the legal phenomenology of Filipino behavior, we noted that in spite of centuries of distance as well as differences in material culture, the pre-colonial Filipinos, the ethnic minorities and lowland Filipinos show the same basic legal philosophy.⁸ Likewise in Christ in the Philippines, we saw a pattern in the local sects, popular religiosity, and official Christianity concerning devotion to Christ; this common pattern became the object of theologizing.

The ideal in phenomenology is first-hand knowledge. However, one philosopher cannot have the first-hand experience of everything. Where such data is wanting, s/he therefore has to rely on the findings of other social scientists. The use of anthropological data is by no means to equate them with philosophy (or theology), as some critics may imply. Phenomenology is a methodology, while philosophy is the result of the methodology used. One check of its validity is its consistency of explanation as well its ability to predict future phenomena.

Both metalinguistic analysis and phenomenology of behavior complement each other, just as a person's words and deeds reveal his mind.

Comparative Oriental Philosophy

Comparative oriental philosophy may be likened to the study of family resemblance. Although each child of the same family differs from his/her other siblings, all the brothers and sisters have similar features. The insight gathered from other siblings may shed light in understanding a particular child.

This methodology also assumes that each type of Oriental philosophy has its uniqueness. Furthermore, each Oriental philosophy may even have sub-schools of thought as in Indian philosophy. But in spite of the varieties, there are also some common themes. For instance, the concepts of shariah, dharma, li, torah (respectively in Islamic, Indian, Chinese, and Jewish philosophy) are similar to Filipino legal philosophy.⁹ The same is true with aesthetics.¹⁰ In Chapter I of this volume, we saw the Oriental family resemblance in the concept of soul and spirit. In Chapter II we saw the similarity between the Javanese concept of batin to loob.

Other Methodologies

Chapter VIII explained why value ranking according to a particular world view is used for ethical judgment. This is because of the limitations of the classical or deontological school of thought and of the teleological school of thought. More explanation of this method is found in Elements of Filipino Ethics.

The methodology of proverb analysis (Chapters III and VII) can be subsumed under the phenomenology of behavior in the sense of establishing patterns and philosophizing on the said patterns.

THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLE

The underlying principle or leitmotif of Filipino philosophy may be expressed negatively and positively.

Negatively, the Filipino's world view is nondualistic. This should not be taken to mean monism, for monism can be understood as either and emphasis on the subject (idealism) or anemphasis on the object (materialism). The nondualistic world view or horizon acknowledges the distinction between object and subject. Positively, the Filipino wants to harmonize the object and the subject.¹¹

Another aspect of harmony is process which has been expounded in this book. What Philippine term is the correct designation for harmony? In our opinion the correct word is kaangayan/kabagayan/kabagay, respectively in Cebuano Visayan, Tagalog, and Ilocano, the three largest Philippine languages (see Table 6). The word connotes harmony, concord, suitability, equality.

A few observations may be made on Table 6. If the meaning of a word depends upon its usage, then every particular use will have its synonyms. For example, if bagay is used to mean suitability, then synonyms (like angkop, karapatdapat and others which fit the particular nuances) may be used. While bagay in Tagalog may also mean `thing,' this is not true for Visayan. In Cebuano Visayan, `ang piano wala sa angay' (the piano is out of tune) cannot be said in Tagalog, `ang piano wala sa tuno.' Tagalogs cannot correctly say `wala sa bagay.' Although Visayan, Tagalog, and Ilocano may not always have the same word for every particular usage, the three languages show a basic agreement on man's relationship with himself, with others, with the world, and with the supernatural.

THE SYSTEM

The main areas of philosophy can be grouped under three headings: man, world, God or the Other World. Let us illustrate how the principle of non-dualism or kaangayan/kabagayan/kabagay applies systematically into these three areas.

Man

Some cultures compartmentalize man's faculties. This mentality is reflected in the expressions, "do not let your heart influence your head," the "heart has its reasons," "hate sin but love the sinner," etc. On the other hand, the Filipino mind is not compartmentalized but holistic. Chapters I and II showed that the Filipino does not have the body-soul dichotomy because he/she follows an holistic model. Because s/he wants to harmonize the object and the subject, s/he is a concrete thinker and arrives intuitively at the truth.¹²

Harmony with one's fellowmen characterizes the Filipino's social philosophy.¹³ It does not stress individualism. For example, the notions of success and failure are sakop-oriented¹⁴ which is characterized as interpersonal and hierarchic. The foregoing traits of the philosophy of man find their application, for instance, in personnel management and in education.¹⁵

World

The principle of non-dualism or of harmony has several implications in the philosophy of the world. Aesthetics or the philosophy of beauty may be classified into two groups: those who want to have a psychological distance between the subject and the object of beauty, and those who want to abolish such distance. The Filipino concept of beauty belongs to the second group.¹⁶

Non-dualism likewise explains the non-linear concept of time,¹⁷ which, in turn, leads to a non-linear concept of history.¹⁸ The Filipino looks at history from the moral viewpoint, that is, to learn from the past. That is why myth (in the exemplary model held be Eliade) also plays a role in the philosophy of history.

If time is non-linear, so is space,¹⁹ to which concept is related the philosophy of numbers. Chapter VII showed that the Filipino leans more to the Pythagorean or mystical view of numbers.

Causality is also non-linear because of the Filipino's holistic world view.²⁰ Although such a notion of causality may not contribute much to technology, it is an asset in psychology and theology.²¹

God

Non-dualism with regard to the philosophy of the Other World is characterized by the non-dichotomy of the profane and the sacred.²² In the positive sense, this an incarnational world view where the holy is quite immanent.²³ Problems which have bothered some critics concerning the Filipino's religiosity as split-level may be dissolved if the incarnational approach is taken.²⁴

Since man's world view in a particular culture is projected upon the invisible world, a pluralistic and complementary view of the divine may exist also in the concept of the Absolute.²⁵ If most Filipinos approach their leaders through intermediaries, they also approach God through the spirits and the departed.²⁶

The Filipino believes in the innate goodness of his nature. Although he "lacks" (in the Western sense) refined notions of guilt and sin, this is balanced by his concept of retribution (gaba).²⁷

Application

Some of the foregoing areas have their practical applications. Private property assumes a communal nature because of the Filipino's sakop orientation.²⁸ The social philosophy and that of time affects the concept of work and leisure.²⁹ The spirit of harmony in the broad sense influences the notion of health.³⁰ Social philosophy also finds some application in guidance.³¹

Legal philosophy is another area of applied philosophy since the law is based on human nature.³² The Filipino's holistic concept of reality blurs the distinction between church and state as well as between the sacred and the profane. Because the sakop prevails over the individual, it

has legal consequences in private property, liability, rights and duties. The interpersonal nature of the sakop requires that harmony be preserved, resulting often in mediation instead of court decisions where one party is declared the winner. The hierarchic nature of sakop brings about the problem of a double standard of justice which is caused by imperfect or unrealized national sakop.³³

COMMENTS

Consistency or coherence is one indicator of correctness. From the foregoing, we may say that there is consistency in the system of Filipino thought. The system may be the basis of further elaboration and may serve as a tool in counter-acting the tide of Westernization. The common tao's philosophy is worthy of respect.

If Filipino philosophy is based on the principle of harmony, is it the same as the Yin Yang philosophy of China? There are similarities and dissimilarities. Yin Yang and Filipino philosophy have several things in common. Both, in broad terms, support the goal of harmony with oneself, with others, with nature, and with the Other World.

However, there are also differences. Yin Yang is explicit about the bipolarity of things as composed of either weak-strong, negative-positive, passive-active, male-female, etc. In Confucian thought (which fosters the veneration of departed ancestors), the emphasis is on male children, especially the eldest, who will carry on this veneration. Hence the Chinese prefer the male to the female. The ancestor veneration is quite explicit. On the other hand, the Filipino counterpart has a greater equality between the sexes due to the bilateral kinship system. In the case of health, Yin Yang is quite explicit in its physiology of acupuncture. While the Filipino may unconsciously harmonize the hot and the cold in health practices, the bipolarity is again not quite explicit.

Another important point of difference is the Yin Yang adherence to the Five Agents or Elements (metal, wood, water, fire and earth), which are better understood as forces or powers than as material elements.³⁴ These elements are expected to succeed one another in the context of harmony. Again the five elements are absent in Filipino thought. Furthermore, Yin Yang has a cyclic theory of history. For example, it believes that a great ruler will be born every five hundred years. This point, again, is not in Filipino thought.

The similarity and dissimilarity of Filipino thought with Yin Yang philosophy may illustrate the fruitfulness of comparative Oriental philosophy as a methodology. While Filipino philosophy may share features common to other Asian systems, it also has its uniqueness, a uniqueness perhaps akin to Philippine identity.

1. For more details on the Filipino identity, see Marcelino A. Foronda's "The Filipino and His Society in Philippine History: Some Personal Reflections," in Filipino Thought on Man and Society, ed. by Leonardo N. Mercado (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1980), pp. 1-9.

2. See Emerita S. Quinto, "Filipino Volksgeist in Vernacular Literature," Karunungan (Manila: De la Salle University Press, 1984), pp. 72-82.

3. "A Philosophy of Filipino Time," Solidarity, 7 (1972) 41-53; "On Filipino Identity and Intellectual Colonialism," Now (September 5, 1972), pp. 62-63; "Filipino Thought," Philippine Studies, 20 (1972), 207-272; "Reflections on Buut-Loob-Nakem," Philippine Studies, 20 1972), 577-601.

4. Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy (EFP) (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1974), p. 194.

5. EFP, pp. 1-21; Christ in the Philippines (CIP), pp. 18-28.

6. F. Landa Jocano, "Language Learning as Part of Fieldwork Techniques: Some Problems in Communication," Asian Studies, 8 (1970), 203-217.

7. EFP, pp. 11-12. See also my article, "Philosophy of Knowledge in the Philippines," in Research Methods in Philippine Context, ed. by Leonardo N. Mercado (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1983), pp. 24-42.

8. Leonardo N. Mercado, Legal Philosophy: Western, Eastern and Filipino (LP) (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1984), pp. 75-157.

9. Ibid

10. Leonardo N. Mercado, Applied Filipino Philosophy (AFP) (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1977), pp. 1-17.

11. EFP, p. 191.

12. See Chapter III; EFP, pp. 73-91.

13. EFP, pp. 92-104.

14. Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Ethics (EFE) (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1979), p. 49.

15. AFP, pp. 42-54, 69-84.

16. Ibid., pp. 1-17; see also Chapter IV.

17. EFP, pp. 107-118; See also Chapter X of this book.

18. AFP, pp. 18-26.

19. EFP, pp. 119-130; see also Chapter X.

20. Ibid., pp. 131-141.

21. Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Theology (EFT) (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1975), pp. 162-165.

22. EFP, pp. 159-165; Leonardo N. Mercado, Inculturation and Filipino Theology (IFT) (Manila: Divine Word Publicatons, 1992), pp. 88-89.

23. EFT, pp. 25-28; IFT, pp. 43-73.

24. Leonardo N. Mercado, "Some Comments on the Filipino Religious Psychology," in Filipino Religious Psychology (Tacloban City: Divine Word university Publications, 1977), pp. 180-188.

25. IFT, pp. 43-87.

26. EFP, pp. 172-174; EFT, pp. 45-47.

27. EFP, pp. 182-187; EFT, pp. 77-92.

28. EFP, pp. 142-147; EFT, pp. 58-60.

29. AFP, pp. 27-41.

30. EFT, PP. 213-220.

31. AFP, pp. 58-59.

32. LP, pp. 174-176.

33. Ibid., pp. 147-150.

34. Wing-Tsit Chan (trans. and comp.), A Source in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1969), pp. 244-245. See also Paul Shih-Yin Hsiao, "Bipolartaet als Ganszheit im Chineschen Denken und Leben," Zeitshrift fuer Ganzheitforshung 4 (1983), 147-158.