In the preceding two chapters, we attempted to study the aparaa vidhyaa and paraa vidhyaa, viz., the phenomenal and noumenal states of man. Our consideration of the aparaa vidhyaa made us aware that in phenomenal existence we are caught up with the Iishvara -- jiiva experience. On the other hand, our analysis of the paraa vidhyaa helped us to understand that the ultimate reality behind the universe is Brahman, the pure consciousness in jiiva is Aatman and that they are fundamentally one. The true destiny of man is achieved, when the aspirant frees himself from the pheno-menal way of living and moves towards the transcendental path. In other words, when the aspirant moves from aparaa vidhyaa to the state of paraa vidhyaa, he attains his true destiny. To quote Shan-kara: "The following knowledge (the right knowledge of the substratum) does not arise without negating the previous one (the superimposed knowledge), as the knowledge of the rope does not come without destroying that of the snake in a snake-rope."1 Thus, for Shankara, man’s movement towards authenticity is similar to climbing a ladder, in which, the lower steps or stages are given up, when the higher stage is attained. The process of this movement from aparaa vidhyaa to paraa vidhyaa is what we call Brahmaajijnaasa. In this chapter, we shall look into the nature, stages and end of Brah-maajijnaasa.

Since Brahmaanubhava is an immediate and direct ex-perience, there is no need of any means to attain it. Besides, as an absolute and trans-empirical experience, it is not possible to attain it by the use of any empirical or relative means. But, though we cannot bring about Brahmaanubhava, still we can remove ignorance and pave the way for Brahmaanubhava. As the non-realization of the self is a result of ignorance; the removal of ignorance is all that we need to do in order that Brahmanubhava can happen in us. "The attainment of the highest (Brahmaaunbhava)", says Shankara, "means merely the removal of ignorance and nothing more."2 In darkness, though the objects are in contact with the senses, still we are not able to perceive them because of the presence of darkness. When we remove the darkness, we are able to perceive the objects as they are. For example, in semi-darkness a stump of a tree appears like a man; when the light comes in, we can recognize the real nature of the object in question, i.e., the tree stump.3 This is much the same in Brahmanubhava. It is due to ignorance that the absolute reality, the Brahman, is seen as the world of phenomena. All that is required to attain Brahmaanubahva is to remove the ignorance that blinds one in order to see his own nature. It is the wrong knowledge of the self that obstructs the perfect knowledge of the self, just as the perception of the silver in the pearl shell obstructs the perception of the pearl shell. When the obstruction of wrong knowledge is re-moved, the real nature of the self becomes self-revealed.4 Thus, for Shankara, "except for the removal of the superimposition of the non-self on the self, no effort, whether bodily or mental, is necessary for the realization of the self."5

Brahmaajijnaasa is the process undertaken by the aspirant to remove the superimposed knowledge. It literally means the ‘desire for the realization of Brahman’. Brahmaajijnaasa includes all the efforts the aspirant makes to arrive at the paraa vidhyaa state. It would also embrace the different means used by the aspirant to transcend the dualities of the empirical order and attain the identity consciousness. Shankara’s Advaita Vedaanta recognizes a dualism in the process of Brahmaajijnaasa. In other words, he speaks of a direct method and an indirect method in Brahmaajijnaasa. The direct method involves a deep understanding of the illusoriness of the phenomenal reality, the fundamental oneness of everything in Brahman and a discriminative consciousness that would enable the aspirant to break through the appearance and apprehend the under-lying absolute reality in the manifoldness of the world. But the direct method may not be possible for everyone, as all may not be able to attain the vision of pure reason and discriminating consciousness. To such persons an indirect method is proposed, in which the lower nature of man, such as emotions and activities, are satisfied before one moves towards the higher intellectual discriminative conscious-ness. For Shankara, the indirect paths of service and love are not, by themselves, capable of removing total ignorance, but gradually they open the individual aspirant to a life of wisdom.6

The indirect method opens within the individual aspirant a willingness to surrender his energy in a life of service and to give himself with a loving heart. The willing surrender of one’s life in generous service calls one to live a life of sacrifice and action (karma). For such a life of action, it is necessary to work towards eliminating selfish motives and intentions that stem from animal instincts in man. Besides, the aspirant must learn to do everything he does without any self interest (nishkaama karma).7 Thus, action done in love and faith would open the heart of the aspirant for a higher level of existence. The life of sacrifice is a stream through which the divine flow can envelop the heart of the aspirant to a deeper and fuller life of love and devotion (bhakti). A life of devotion prepares the seeker for deeper levels of sweetness and bliss. These transformations take place gradually, leading the seeker to still higher stages.8

Devotion is of two types, viz., bheda-upaasana and abheda-upaasana. In bheda-upaasana, a difference-in-identity is kept in view. The seeker in this state, while he enjoys the delights of union in love, keeps himself separate. Abheda-upaasana is a state in which the identity with the absolute is kept in view. Here, the aspirant gra-dually loses himself in the object of love and worship. Thus, in the latter state there is the possibility of identity consciousness, as life in the world does not seem anything more than the mental life of the seeker. Such an identity consciousness can take place in two different processes, viz., the process of sinking and the process of expansion. In the sinking process, the seeker feels that the soul is placed in the all pervasive consciousness. Feeling the immanence of the bliss, the seeker surrenders himself completely. This complete surrender brings about a psychological and spiritual transformation in the seeker. He experiences every mental modification in a new vision and meaning as everything is viewed in relationship to the infinite. There is complete delight and deep satisfaction in the soul. The intensity of devotion in love, the inner delight and satisfaction make the finite self-consciousness forget itself and be absorbed in the immanent infinite consciousness. The process of expansion consists in the gradual realization in the seeker that he is the imma-nent principle of the cosmos. When this realization takes over the aspirant he no longer feels that he is placed in the vastness of the cosmos, but rather finds that the entire universe is the reflection of his own being. In other words, he feels within himself the totality of existence. In the process, his sense of finite personality dissolves into an impersonal, expansive conscious existence.9

Though Shankara was convinced of the primacy of the direct method of knowledge (jnaana) for the removal of ignorance, he did give a place for the indirect method because of its practical neces-sity. For the vast majority of people in the world would not be able to give themselves directly to the demands of a life that involves reflection and intellectual activity. But, if persons have given them-selves to lower levels of existence, i.e., service and love, gradully they would come to desire wisdom, transcending the empirical state of existence. It was Shankara’s belief that, for most people, the path of wisdom can begin to have meaning when they have satisfied the will and the heart, as it will lead to the realization of the absolute behind the illusory and the relative. The focus of niskaama karma on service to others and bhakti on love of the supreme Lord, would make easy the life of real renunciation of the phenomenal state of living. This is probably the reason that Shankara retained the jiiva -- Iishvara idea in his system of thought, even though he was convinced of the truth of Brahman -- Aatman identity. In other words, Shankara admitted the possibility of a life love in service and service in love, only as a help to those seekers of Brahman who otherwise would not have had the opportunity to open themselves to a life of reflection (vicaara) and knowledge (viveeka).10

In speaking of the various means to remove ignorance, Shankara argues that neither action (karma) nor devotion (bhakti) are able to remove ignorance. These two means work in the realm of ignorance: the former concentrates on performing the various actions in the world of phenomena, and the latter helps the aspirant to concentrate on the supreme Lord. Both action and devotion presuppose duality and are not opposed to ignorance. A man who performs good actions and is a devoted man can still be in the illusion of ignorance and may never know the true nature of Brah-man. Therefore, action and devotion do not succeed in removing ignorance. Shankara very strongly argues for the primacy of know-ledge in the removal of ignorance. Knowledge is directly opposed to ignorance. Knowledge and ignorance about a particular reality cannot co-exist in a person, for knowledge, as it were, drives away ignorance. Though knowledge cannot bring about Brahmaanubhava, still it can indirectly remove ignorance by its very presence. "Whe-ther ignorance means doubt or false knowledge", says Shankara, "it always is removable by knowledge only, but not by action in any of its form, for there is no contradiction between ignorance and action."11

The aspirant, having taken upon himself the process of Brahmaajijnaasa, goes through its different stages. These help him to get rid of ignorance which is the cause of duality and multiplicity. When ignorance is removed, and with it all multiplicity, the truth about oneself dawns. For Shankara, the jnaana path is the funda-mental aspect of Brahmaajijnaasa, as only knowledge is able to remove ignorance. In jnaana path, by hearing doubt is removed from an unprepared mind that the Upanishads cannot impart the know-ledge of Brahman. Reflection removes the doubt that the self and Brahman cannot be one, especially by giving logical and reasonable arguments. Through meditation the mind is withdrawn from all distractions and things other than Brahman. This process of Brah-maajijnaasa gradually removes all traces of ignorance from the aspirant and thereby opens the way for Brahmanubhava, the ultimate liberation. Hearing, reflection and meditation generate knowledge by the removal of ignorance. When all consequences of ignorance, such as duality and differences, are removed there dawns the self-knowledge or Brahmanubhava.12

Brahmaajijnaasa is only a preparation, a progressive removal of obstacles to knowledge, a protracted suicide of ajnaana (ignorance). Vidhyaa (true knowledge) cannot be a result, but a direct, inde-pendent realization, an awakening to reality, an in-tuition suddenly dawning upon the seeker. It is direct knowledge, while the result affected by the whole Brahmaajijnaasa can be nothing higher than an indirect knowledge.13

The occurrence of Brahmaanubhava is simultaneous with the removal of ignorance from the seeker. When ignorance is removed by the process of Brahmaajijnaasa, there follows immediately the truth about oneself, i.e., one’s absolute absorption into Brahman. At this state the indirect knowledge of reflection (vicaara) gives way to right discrimination (viveeka). Now, there is no activity and the intellect of the aspirant sees through the appearance, recognizing his oneness with Brahman. At this stage, the aspirant knows that he is Brahman, and all duality and multiplicity disappear, since he realizes the fact that all is Brahman.14 This realization of one’s ab-sorption into or identity with Brahman is Brahmanubhava, the true liberation. Thus, Brahmaajijnaasa is a preparation, while Brah-maanubhava is the end.

The high intellectual penetration involved in the study of the scriptures implies that the seeker of Brahmaanubhava has full control over his bodily organism. The stability of the gross body is required for its normal functioning. When it comes to preparing oneself for higher intellectual and spiritual training, there is need to discipline the body sufficiently so as to make it a fit instrument for the realization of Brahman. The system of training that prepares the body for such a higher state of existence is called Hathayoga. It increases vitality in the body, gives good health and preserves great amounts of energy within the aspirant, as Hathayoga opens the aspirant for the life-process of the cosmic praana.15 The two main elements of Hathayoga are aasana (posture) and pranayaama (control of praana).

Aasana consists in placing the body in various postures. It helps the body to get rid of restlessness that blocks deep reflection and concentration. Aasana brings the entire physical organism of the aspirant under the control of his will. The posture is different from other types of physical exercises, as its aim is to make the body best fitted for the highest type of experience. The Hathayogin keeps his body free from all impurities, his nervous system in tact and gains control over the different muscles of the body by the practice of aasanas.16 Pranayaama is a method, with the help of which, the aspirant controls his vital power or breathing, which is the basis of organic life. It keeps under check one’s inhalation and exhalation; it helps one to achieve complete will power over one’s life-force. If practiced consistently, one can learn to restrain the vital-process completely. According to Advaitins, pranayaama has two purposes. Firstly, it brings about perfection in the body. Secondly, it helps to awaken the praanic dynamism, i.e., the vast stored-up energy, which opens the aspirant for extra-ordinary consciousness. As a result, the moral and spiritual possibilities are awakened in the Hathayogin. Pranayaama, thus, helps the aspirant to control the instincts, passions and impulses that disturb the peace of mind. It can be practiced in two ways: firstly, as a purely physical practice, to keep the heart-beat under control, without any plan of control of the mind, and secondly, as a psycho-physical practice, to control the lower passions, to open in the seeker higher qualities and to help mental and spiritual discipline. The practice of pranayaama, in the latter way, is of great help to the seeker of Brahmaanubhava.17

Though the intellect in all beings is intrinsically able to make the self known [from the study of the scrip-ture], still being polluted by such blemishes as attachment to external objects, etc., it becomes agitated and impure, and does not, like a stained mirror or ruffled water make the reality of the self known, though it is ever at hand.18

Shankara uses another analogy to illustrate the same fact. Fire, by its nature, is able to burn wood. But, if the wood is wet, fire is not able to burn it. In the same way intellect, though it is able to know and understand the import of the scriptural statements, because it is clouded by passions and attachments to things, does not grasp Brahman from the study of the mahaavaakyas.19 In other words, scriptural knowledge fails to accomplish its end if man is not perfectly pure at heart. The capacity of the mind to discriminate between truth and untruth is weakened when it is swayed by passions and sensual pleasures.20 Thus, it is important to prepare oneself spiritually and to free the intellect from all passions, attachments and prejudices, in order to know the true nature of Brahman from the study of the scriptures and from the instructions of the teacher. Therefore Shankara proposes four disciplines called the instruments of spiritual knowledge (sadhanachatyshtaya), which the aspirant must practice before he ever begins the process of Brahmaajijnaasa (search for Brahman), by the study of the scripture under the guidance of the teacher (guru).

The first moral condition required of the aspirant in order that he be able to begin his move towards Brahmaanubhava is discrimi-nation between the eternal and the non-eternal (nityaanityavas-tuviveeka). It consists in an intuitive, firm conviction that Brahman alone is the absolute ground of all things or that which is really real, and that all other things are unreal and phenomenal. Viveeka (discrimination) is the most fundamental quality that is necessary in an individual, because without it the other moral conditions are not possible. In other words, if one has not discriminated between the real and the unreal and has not recognized the absoluteness of Brahman there is no motivation to strive for its attainment.21

The second moral means for the removal of ignorance is renunciation (vairaagya), which consists in not seeking the enjoy-ments of the fruits here and here-after. It implies rigorous self-discipline to control the inner tendency of the aspirant to wander amidst sensuous experience and enjoy it. Renunciation is aimed at purification of emotions, perfection of the mental being and mastery over thought-consciousness. It would enable the aspirant to elimi-nate lawless tendencies, impulses and tendencies of animal nature, and to build up good habits of mind.22 Renunciation is, thus, the giving up of all the pleasures of the eyes, the ears and the other senses. By renunciation one also gives up objects of transitory enjoyment, the desire for a physical body, as well as for the highest kind of spirit-body of a god.23 It is an attitude of indifference to all the seen and unseen results attainable by various means, whereby one becomes devoted to the scriptural teaching, and is not carried away by one’s own natural desires. Renunciation is not the state of absolute desirelessness or Brahmaanubhava, but a state in which one desires nothing but self-realization.24

In renunciation one foregoes the pleasures the world can offer so that one can concentrate on the study of the scripture. Therefore, a life of renunciation give the aspirant the opportunity to go in unin-terrupted search after the goal of human existence by a deeper understanding of the scriptural statements (mahaavaakyas). Any person who is interested in absolute freedom must take every step to transcend earthly ties and involvements by way of renunciation. Vedaantins speak of two types of renunciation, vibidisha sannyaasa and vidwat sannyaasa. Vibdisha sannyaasa is the renunciation for the acquisition of knowledge. This is practiced by the seeker; it does not consist merely in giving up worldly pleasures, but rather involves a systematic search after the life of wisdom. The aspirant, while practicing this type of renunciation, besides denouncing attachment to phenomenal enjoyments, seeks after hearing and reflecting about Aatman and concentrating upon it. Vidwat sann-yaasa is a renunciation one practices after the attainment of true knowledge. Complete freedom from all desires and activities is characteristic of this type of renunciation. This is desireless exist-ence, in which renunciation co-exists with true knowledge.25

Thirdly, the aspirant should try to live a virtuous life by the practice of six treasures (shatsamapatti). When practiced, these virtues help the aspirant’s inner faculties and make possible the cultivation of higher knowledge. The six virtues taught by Shankara are the following: firstly, calmness (sama), which consists in developing the quality of inner serenity so that one can dwell on Brahman after abandoning all the desires by renunciation; secondly, self-control (dama), which helps the aspirant to restrain his senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, and thus opens him to hear and to listen to the instructions of the teacher; thirdly, self-settled-ness (uaaparati), which is the withdrawal from all objects of enjoyment. This helps the aspirant to relinquish all the joys of worldly life and embrace the life of a sannyaasin (monk); fourthly, forbearance (titiksha), which is the endurance of all the sufferings of this life. It helps the aspirant to not be agitated by love and hate, pleasure and pain, and all such pairs of opposites; fifthly, faith (sraddha), which is the firm conviction and intuitive belief in the existence of the ultimate reality. At this same time, it is not a mechanical or unquestioning belief, but a conviction based on intel-lectual understanding of what is taught in the scriptures about ultimate reality; sixthly, complete concentration (samaadhaana), which is the fixing of the mind on Brahman as taught by the scripture and a competent teacher. These six virtues direct one’s attention to the attainment of Brahmanubhava.26

The fourth moral condition is the aspirant’s hunger for liberation (mumukshvtva). It consists in possessing an intense desire to be rid of ignorance and to attain Brahmaanubhava. "It is an intense longing of the student to free himself from all bondages pertaining to the body, the mind and the ego."27 It is not a restless desire, but a result of the ethical practices mentioned above. Without this longing for liberation the ethical practices are really meaning-less because a man may become morally perfect, and may achieve many supernatural powers, but if the desire for self-realization is absent in him, all his virtues will be of no real significance.28 It is this longing and desire for true knowledge or Brahmaanubhava that gives motivation and meaning to the whole process of Brahmaajij-naasa.

This knowledge [that the self is Brahman] should be imparted only to him whose mind has been pacified, who has controlled his senses and is freed from all defects, who has practiced the duties enjoined by the scriptures and is possessed of good qualities, who is always obedient to the teacher and aspires only after liberation and nothing else.29

Hearing implies the idea of ‘being taught’. At the first stage of the understanding of the meaning of the Vedaantic statements, the aspirant is introduced, by competent teachers to the teachings of Advaita. The need for a teacher at this stage is very much stressed in the scriptures. "A guru is like a boat on that boundless ocean which has for its water the principal struggle due to the rotation in the cycle of birth, decay and death."30 Just as a boat is a place of safety for one who struggles in the ocean aimlessly, so the teacher by his teaching directs one to union with Brahman, freeing him from transmigra-tion. Again, Kaatha Upanishad Bhaasya states: "When propounded by a teacher who sees no variety and is one with (ananya) the pro-pounded Brahman, doubts whether the self exist or not . . . do not arise any longer for the self is such that it banishes doubts of all kinds."31 Thus sravana or hearing is the initiation of the aspirant to the traditional Vedaantic doctrine transmitted and passed on by the teachers.

Sravana, at the same time, is the mental activity which helps the understanding of Upanishadic texts, leading to their only import, viz., Brahman. This is achieved by an examination of the texts through six tests, namely, commencement, ending, repetition, uniqueness, result, eulogy, and reason.32 In the third chapter of the Chaandoogya Upanishad we have a typical illustration of this first stage, namely, hearing. Here the aspirant, Sivetaketu, the grandson of Aruna, is instructed by his father, but using the above mentioned six tests. The subject matter of this instruction is ‘Brahman, the one without a second’. Analysis of the six tests used in hearing in relation to the text in question gives us an idea about the practice of hearing or sravana.

The first and the second tests mentioned are commencement and ending. They refer to the presentation of the subject matter of the section at the beginning and at the end of the section. The subject matter is introduced in the beginning of the section in the words, "one only without a second"33 and again at the end in the words "Thus has all this world that [Brahman] for its self."34 The second test is repetition, which consists in the frequent presentation of the subject matter again and again. For instance, the subject matter "Brahman is one without a second" is repeated nine times in this section, in different words.35 The third is uniqueness, which means that the nature of the subject matter is such that it cannot be attained through any other means of knowledge than the study of the scrip-tures. In this section the subject matter "Brahman is one without a second" cannot be achieved in any other way except from the under-standing of the meaning of the mahaavaakyas. Fourth, the result is the usefulness of the subject matter of the section. In this section the realization that Brahman is one without a second brings about the self-knowledge of Brahmaanubhava. In other words, the utility of the knowledge of Brahman as the one without a second is its attainment. Fifth, eulogy consists in praising the subject matter at different places of the section. It is found in this section in the words: "Have you ever asked for that instruction by which one hears what has not been heard; one thinks what has not been known; one has spoken in praise of Brahman without a second."36 Finally, reason consists in demonstrating the subject matter of the section. In this section we have the demonstration of "Brahman is one without a second" in the words: "As by a lump of clay, all that is made of clay is known . . . every modification being an effect of speech, a mode and the clay is the only reality."37 In other words, just as in knowing a lump of clay, we can know the nature of all things made of clay, so also in knowing that Brahman is one without a second, the nature of everything in the world is known, for Brahman is the ground of everything. Thus, a reason is furnished to demonstrate the subject matter of the section.38 Hence, by hearing the meaning of the mahaavaakya from the teacher the aspirant becomes familiar with the import of the scripture.

After being addressed by the teacher, the disciple (shyshya) sat at the solitary place and attended to nothing else (ekaanta), concentrated his thoughts (saamhita) and pondered over the meaning of aagma [the traditional teaching pointed out by his guru], arrived at a conclusion through reasoning, made it [the teacher’s instructions] his own ex-perience, went back to his teacher and explained: ‘I think, I now know Brahman’.39

The purpose of it [manaana] is to fortify one’s conviction of the truth from the scripture and to rid oneself of all doubts. . . . Another important function of reflection is to make one comprehend the real meaning of the scriptural statements by consistently interpreting them so that the apparent inconsistencies are resolved.40

But, though at this stage of reflection one looks for arguments and reasons to justify the knowledge of Brahman received in sravana, still the arguments and reasons sought to strengthen one’s conviction must not be contradictory to the teaching of the Upani-shads. For, the scriptural authority is absolute, and reason is subser-vient to revelation especially with regard to our knowledge of Brahman. Therefore, for Shankara, manaana is "that continuous reflections performed with the aid of reasoning, and subservient to the teaching of the Upanishads, upon secondless reality, known through sravana."41

At this stage, the aspirant makes use of the negative method of Advaita Vedaanta, viz., apavaada (negation), more than ever before. Apavaada or negation consists in the elimination of what something is not, in order that one may attain the truth about that particular thing. In other words, it is "the elimination of the falsely superimposed attributes (vivartha) in order to discover the true nature of a thing."42 The rope appears as a snake in the illusion. By negating the illusory snake the true nature of the rope is perceived; by negating the attributes of the illusory water in the mirage one discovers the true nature of the desert; by negating the illusory silver we obtain the true nature of the shells scattered on the beach. This ability to distinguish between the real and the unreal Shankara calls discrimination. It is this discriminating ability that helps us to under-stand the true nature of things. It is much the same with our knowledge of Brahman. By negating, through discrimination the attributes of the non-self, one attains the true nature of the Aatman; and by negating the world of names and forms one attains the knowledge about Brahman, the absolute reality.43

Negation, then, consists in the refutation of the knowledge established by the method of superimposition or adhyaropa. In the scriptures we find many statements about the ultimate reality expressed in terms of negation. "That which is invisible (adneesya), ungraspable (agranya), without family (agootra), without caste (avarna), without sight or hearing (acaksisrotra), without hand or foot (apanipaada), immortal (nitya) . . . imperishable (avyaaya)" 44 is Brahman. "The self is that which has been desired as neither this nor that."45 "It (Brahman) is imperishable . . ., undecaying . . ., unattached . . ., unsettled. It never feels pain, never suffers injury, it is transcendent."46 These passages from the scripture witness to the fact that these negated qualities like birth, death, hunger, thirst, pain and pleasure never did belong to the absolute Brahman, even though these attributes were given to Brahman by one in the state of ignor-ance. Neither do these superimposed qualities affect the ultimate reality in any way. Thus, the "via negativa of Advaita Vendaanta . . . safeguards the unqualified oneness of the state of being called Brahman."47

Brihadaaranyaka Upanishad speaks of Brahman with the words ‘neti neti’ (not so, not so).48 In fact this statement does not make us perceive something directly as the statement "this is a book" makes us perceive a book. Therefore, ‘neti neti’ does not tell us anything positive about the nature of Brahman. But in fact it is the most proper way of describing Brahman, since it is devoid of all qualities. The term ‘neti’ consists of two words: ‘ne’ which means ‘not’ and `iti’ which means ‘so’. The word `iti’ indicates the pre-sence of something or a quality right here which is negated by the `ne’. Thus, `iti’ used with `ne’ points to something that is negated. The repetition of `neti’ twice covers all possible predications that are to be eliminated.49 `Neti neti’ only denies the attributes superimposed on Brahman and not the Brahman, for such denial of both the Brahman and the superimposed qualities would lead to pure void (suunya) and to Nihilism. For Shankara says, "Know . . . that the sruti ‘not large’, etc., is meant to negate the false super-imposition (of largeness, smallness, etc. on the self) as it would be description of a void if it were meant to negate those qualities from one other than the self."50 Just as the denial of the illusion of the snake leaves with the reality of the rope, so too the denial of the qualities superimposed on Brahman reveals Brahman in its entirety. For according to Shankara `neti neti’ denies not absolutely every-thing, but only everything but Brahman.51

At the same time the use of ‘neti neti’ before a descriptive sentence does not necessarily mean that particular descriptive sentence in question is false, but rather it only means that the sentence is not applicable or not appropriate in the case of Brahman. Consequently, what this approach has done is to generate a third kind of connotation which one can make of descriptions. No longer are descriptions either true or false; some of them may be given a third kind of evaluation, namely, what had been termed ‘inappro-priate’ or ‘inapplicable’.52

A clear illustration of regressus to Brahman by way of nega-tion is found in Brihadaaranyaka Upanishad. Gargi, the daughter of Vacaknai questions Yajnavalkya, "Since the world is woven on water, on what is water woven?" He replies that it is on the wind that water is woven. She continues the question in a similar manner asking on what the wind is woven? The wind is woven by the atmosphere worlds, and this by the world of Gandharvas, and this by the world of the sun, and sun by the world of the moon, and moon by the world of the stars, and stars by the world of gods, and gods by the world of Indra, and Indra by the world of Prajapati, and Prajapati by the world of Brahma. Gargi persists in her question and asks on what the world of Brahman woven? Yajnavalkya replies, "Gargi, do not question too much, lest your head fall off. In truth you are questioning too much about a divinity about which further questions cannot be asked. Gargi do not over-question."53 Thus, Yajnavalkya using the method of negation moves towards Brahman, eliminating all adjuncts of limitation (upaadhi) starting from the lowest.

Sometimes in scriptural passages we find twofold negations.54 In statements like Brahman is "not known and beyond the un-known"55 and "neither gross nor subtle,"56 what is denied is not only one attribute but also its opposite. Commenting on this statement which describes Brahman as "neither sat (existent) nor asat (non-existent),"57 Shankara says "Since the Knowable (Brahman/Aat-man) is beyond the reach of senses . . . it cannot be . . . an object of consciousness accompanied with the idea either of existence or of non-existence, and, therefore, not said to be sat or asat."58 It is clear from this comment of Shankara, that, in such negations, the notion of sat and asat are understood from the vyavahaara, and not the paramaartha viewpoint. From the supreme point of view of absolute knowledge, the term ‘sat’ applies purely to Brahman. But it is quite natural in the course of Brahmaajijnaasa that one understand such terms as `sat’ or `asat’ in the ordinary meaning they have for those who are still immersed in ignorance. In that case what the aspirant understands by `sat’ primarily is the object of his senses, which should be negated with respect to Brahman.59 Thus, the negative method completely does away with all false attribution of Brahman and, thereby, paves the way for true knowledge.

Thus, in the state of manaana the aspirant by way of negation de-super-imposes the phenomenal reality from Brahman, and understands the full import of the Vedaantic statements like ‘tat tvam asi’ in their indirect or implicit meaning. Manaana, therefore, logically establishes the truth of identity by critical reflection and discourse.60 At the end of the stage of reflection all ignorance is removed; the aspirant is intellectually convinced of this identity with Brahman and thus moves towards the next stage, viz., meditation.

The final stage leading to the complete removal of ignorance and, thus, to the direct realization of the self is mediation or nidid-hyaasana. If an aspirant, having heard the teacher, is successful in his reflection and is intellectually convinced of his identity with Brahman, then he is ready to strive for the direct realization or Brahmaanubhava. Nididhyaasana is a mental activity consisting in withdrawing the mind from all other things and concentrating it on Brahman.61 Nididhyaasana "strikes deep the Vedaantic wisdom into our heart. It eradicates the innate confusion of the body with the soul."62 Meditation is not a concentration of oneself on Brahman as an external and separate entity. It is an activity of the mind "in which the mind is turned completely inward, and is firmly fixed on the inner self and its identity with Brahman till one’s finitude and individua-lity is dissolved."63

Nididhyaasana has two forms, viz., samprajnaat-samaapatti and asamprajnaat-samaapatti. Samprajnaat-samaapatti is a form of meditation in which the aspirant witnesses modifications of consciousness, while meditating on the mahaavaakyas. In this type of meditation, there are two stages. The initial stage is characterized by the knowledge of the modification of mental consciousness that was originated by meditating on the Vedaantic statement ‘tat tvam asi’. The aspirant, therefore, is conscious of himself, the meditator and witness of the modification that has taken place in the consciousness, and of the modification created by the meditation on the scriptural axiom at that particular moment. The later stage of samprajnaat-samaapatti is free from all thoughts regarding the origin of the modification that is produced in the consciousness as the result of meditation on the mahaavaakya. Since the meditation is intense, at this state the temporal and spatial marks of modification are not available to the consciousness of the meditator. The aspirant is aware only of himself, as the witness, and the modifications pro-duced by his meditation on the Vedaantic aphorism.64

Asamprajnaat-samaapatti is a state of meditation in which the consciousness of the aspirant practicing meditation is not charac-terized by any modifications. In it, there is no sense of duality, as all modifications produced by the meditation on the scriptural axiom have ceased to exist. As there is no subject-object duality in this state of meditation, the Aatman becomes the subject and object of meditation, as the identity without any modifications is arrived at as the result of asamprajnaat-samaapatti.65

The realization of one’s absorption in, or identity with, Brah-man is Samaadhi (Brahmaanubhava). It is the true liberation and the ultimate end of the seeker and is of the same nature of Brahman. Therefore, Brahman and Samadhi are identical, for liberation is nothing else but becoming one with Brahman. In the liberated state the aspirant knows that he is Brahman. As a result, all duality and multiplicity disappear; one knows now that all, including oneself, is Brahman. In the Samaadhi state nothing new is attained in the aspirant, for he only realizes what he is from all eternity.66

According to Shankara, the realization of Samaadhi takes place in three stages of consciousness. The first stage is the asmbhaava-bhaavana which consists in the removal of the thought of the non-existence of Brahman when one hears that ‘Brahman, as undivided consciousness, exists’. The second stage is drishyamaa-rjnaana. Here, the discriminative capacity is more advanced and one is able to penetrate the appearance to get into the essence of reality. Now, one is able to remove the avidhyaa that everything is material and become conscious of the immutable being of Brahman. At these stages, the knowledge is only indirect, mediate and based on subject-object distinction. The third stage is that of identity-consciousness (Brahmaanubhava). At this stage, the seeker experiences the deepest core of his being that Aatman is identical with Brahman, the ultimate source behind the universe in the process removing the ignorance about the illusoriness of the phenomenal reality. This final stage gives us direct knowledge of Brahman.67 Commenting on these three stages of consciousness Mahendranath Sircar says:

The first stage marks out the origin and continuity of the vritti, the second, its final disappearance, the third is the stage of knowledge. Between the second stage and the expression of Aatman in the third, if we can speak in such a way, there is no sequence of time. They are simultaneous. . . . Aatman is known only by implication as one invariably associated with the denial of illusory forms of Avidhyaa and of Avidhyaa itself.68

According to Vedaantins there is a difference between the perception of Aatman or Brahman in the Brahmaanubhava state and the perception of concrete facts in the phenomenal existence. In the perception of concrete things, the manas goes out and takes on itself the determination of the object. Here, the perceiver becomes aware of the existence of the object, because of the fact that manas takes the form of the object, and thereby removes the perceiver’s concrete ignorance about the object. If we take the example of the pot as the object of consciousness, it is known because the manas goes out through the senses and takes on itself the form of the pot; this modification of the mind removes the ignorance about the pot and as a result, consciousness expresses the object. This process is technically known as falavaapya. But the perception of Brahman or Aatman in Samaadhi is very different. In the perception of Brah-man, the manas does not take any concrete form, as Brahman has no form: Brahman is vrittivaapya. So, the mind does not go out to experience Brahman, but rather it is transformed into Brahman, putting an end to all forms of ignorance.69

The later Advaitic writers speak of two stages in samaadhi, depending on the intensity and the nature of concentration, viz., the Savikalpaka samadhi (determinate absorption) and Nirvikalpaka samaadhi (indeterminate absorption). In savikalpaka samaadhi, the aspirant abides in Brahman, the secondless reality, but still retains his ‘I -- consciousness.’ Here, there seem to exist the distinction between the ‘knower,’ the ‘known’ and the ‘knowledge’. These later Advaitins compare this state to one who sees the clay elephant and also the clay that permeates the elephant. In other words, at this stage, the seeker is already possessed by the truth, but still unable to realize it entirely. But Nirvikalpaka samaadhi is the total absorption into Brahman. There is no ‘ I -- consciousness’ or subject-object duality. Just as a lump of salt, when dissolved in salt water, is no longer perceived to be distinct from the water, likewise, the mental state in Nirvikalpaka samaadhi takes the form of Brahman. It is no longer perceived to be distinct from Brahman and cannot be separated from Brahman. At this stage, Brahman or the self alone shines by its own radiance, and the aspirant experiences his absolute identity with Brahman.70

Brahmajnaani is one who possesses true jnaana about Brahman. He is in the state of transcendental consciousness. He would be purely unconscious of the empirical order, as it would not affect him in any way. The vision of Brahmajnaani is no longer obscured by the phenomenal world, its variety of realities and their meanings. His state of existence cannot be described in positive terms, as it surpasses any type of description. He is enlightened and free, fully unaffected by the pains and gains of aparaa existence. In his innermost essence, he knows that he is the eternal consciousness, ultimate truth and bliss.71

When Brahmajnaani reaches the transcendental peak of existence, he is called Videhamukta. For Videhamukta the empirical world is no more a reality as he has awakened to a new vision of existence in which every form of illusion is removed. Videhamukta is said to have attained Videhakaivalya, which involves the freedom of being alone and undisturbed, denial of the body and forsaking of future life. In this state, the karmic seeds that leads to future births have been destroyed by the clear vision of identity. The effects of past karma have been obliterated. As a result, there is no reason for the individual to continue living in the phenomenal world. Videha-mukta passes into a calm existence, having been lost to the empirical world and shedding his artificial personality that is characteristic of jiiva. Such a state is identical with the dawn of knowledge about Brahman.72

Shankara is of the opinion that Brahmaanubhava or Nirvikal-paka samaadhi is possible even when one is alive, and that it is possible for everyone to attain this identity with Brahman if he gives himself to the process of Brahmaajijnaasa and works on removing ignorance, the cause of duality. In Bagavat Gita Bhasya, Shankara says: "A yogi (in the Advaitic sense ) attains Brahmanirvaana (same as Brahmanubhava), the bliss of being Brahman or liberation by being Brahman here itself, that is, while he is alive."73 Again commenting on the Upanishadic statement "by being Brahman one attains Brahman," Shankara says that Brahmaanubhava is possible while one is alive and there is no need for one to wait until death for its attainment. When ignorance is fully destroyed, the real nature of the self is revealed.74 Such a person, who enjoys the liberated state in the present life is called Jiivanmukta. In fact, death does not change the essential condition of the jiivanmukta, but only brings to a close the effects of the accumulated action (karma) which is still bearing fruit (prarabdha).75 In other words, death puts an end to the present life which is the effect of prarabdha.

The behavior of the liberated man can be distinguished from that of others on the basis of the absence of ignorance and its effects. The fully realized soul does not possess any trace of ignorance, and sees everything in Brahman. Thus, the behavior of Jiivanmukta is characterized by oneness, while an ignorant person’s behavior is based on the experience of differences. Though Jiivanmukta lives in the world of duality, he is not disturbed by the pairs of opposites; he sees all things in terms oneness with Brahman. He is not affected by anything, since he sees everything in himself. An ignorant person considers others as different from himself and shapes his relations with them accordingly, whereas the liberated man does not see others as different from himself and shapes his relationship with others in terms of oneness.76 Since the Jiivanmukta sees everything in relation to his own self, the absolute Brahman, nothing can bring any change in his self.

Another important quality that characterizes a Jiivanmukta is fearlessness. He cannot be afraid of anything. For Shankara says, "Fear is caused by a second entity or by things conceived to exist as different from the self. And when this notion of a second entity is eliminated by the realization of oneness, there will be no source of fear."77 An ignorant person sees everything in terms of differences, and so there is every reason that there is fear in an unliberated man. But for the one who has realized himself as the absolute and in-destructible self, there is nothing to be afraid of because he is the one and the absolute.

Jiivanmukta transcends scriptures, ethical imperatives and social conventions. As an aspirant, while working towards this ultimate realization, he eradicated all his passions, prejudices and attachments, and concentrated on Brahman alone. Thus, when he has attained the identity with Brahman, he is free from all faults and never makes a false step or sets a bad example. The great ethical virtues such as humility, unselfishness, purity, kindness, and fellow-feeling, which prior to the attaining of knowledge he assiduously practiced for the purification of the mind, now adorn him like jewels. He does not seek them or need them, but they cling to him.78

Sometimes a fool, sometimes a sage, sometimes possessed of regal splendor, sometimes a wanderer, sometimes behaving like a motionless python that waits for its food to come to it, sometimes wearing a benign expression, sometimes honored, sometimes insulted, sometimes unknown . . . thus lives a man of realization ever happy in the knowledge of Brah-man.79

A Jiivanmukta is desireless and free from sorrow or grief. Desire arises when an object of one’s wish is not attained; and sorrow and grief arise when the object of one’s affection or desire is no longer with him. A person is sad, because he has lost something which was dear to him. In fact desires, grief and sorrow are based on the experience of differences. Brahman or the self is the absolute reality and lacks nothing. In attaining the self everything else is attained, for Brahman is the ultimate source of everything. Thus, desirelessness or the absence of grief and sorrow, in case of the Jiivanmukta, is not due to the suppression of desires, but because of his realization of Brahman, after reaching which there remains nothing to be desired.80

A Jiivanmukta lives in this bodily state as long as there lasts the accumulated effects of the past actions that have begun to bear fruit (prarabdha). Until that time Jiivanmukta might engage himself in working for the welfare of others. As a possessor of a body, which is the result of earlier karma, he experiences that which is charac-teristic of material forms, like hunger, thirst, illness and old age. But he is never overwhelmed by these, for he knows the truth of their passing nature and of his nature as the absolute Brahman. The liberated man is one who "sees nothing in the waking state, even as in dreamless sleep; who, though beholding duality, does not really behold it, since he beholds only the absolute; who though engaged in work is inactive." 81

All that we have said about the behavior of a Jiivanmukta are only approximations. Just as Brahman and Brahmanubhava are incomprehensible and indescribable, so too the nature and the characteristics of Jiivanmukta are not describable. All we can say about the Jiivanmukta is said about him and his behavior, from our phenomenal point of view. All we have done, in trying to describe the qualities of the Jiivanmukta is to negate qualities like fear, desire, duality and differences, which are characteristic of those who live under the sway of ignorance. In other words, we have only said what the Jiivanmukta is not and not what he is; like Brahman, he is indescribable. Therefore, the so-called characteristics mentioned above are only a possible way of talking about Jiivanmukta from the phenomenal point of view. From the paramaartha or absolute point of view, Jiivanmukta is Brahman, and is of the nature of the unknowable and indescribable Brahman.82