In the preceding two chapters, we made a study of the state of self-realization and the state of ignorance respectively. Our analysis of the state of self-realization, in the first chapter, helped us to understand that the ultimate reality behind this universe is Brahman, the pure consciousness in jiiva is Aatman and that they are fundamentally one. Besides, it is a non-dual state of unbroken bliss, in which the seeker of Brahman experiences the absolute in his self and views the whole world form the oneness-perspective of Brahman. Our study of the state of ignorance, in the second chapter, brought to light the nature of phenomenal existence, in which a person is caught up with the Iishvara -- jiiva experience, which is brought about by the superimposing activity of the cosmic and individual maayaa on Brahman. As a result, the non-dual Brahman identical with Aatman is experienced by the jiiva in three cosmic states, viz., the Viraat, the Hirayanagarbha, and Iishvara, and three individual states, i.e., the Vishva, the Taijasa and the Praanja. The second chapter also pointed out to the fact that only way to experience self-realization is to transcend the state of ignorance in all its aspects. The removal of ignorance is the condition on which the identity experience between Brahman and Aatman can happen. Thus, the negation of ignorance is a sine qua non for Brahman-experience. Shankara says: "The following knowledge [the knowledge of Brahman, i.e., self-realization] does not arise without negating the previous one [superimposed knowledge that is characteristic of the state of ignorance] . . . [as] the knowledge of the rope does not come without destroying that of the snake in the snake-rope."¹ Thus, for Shankara, man's movement towards authentic self-realization is an ascending movement, like climbing a ladder, in which the lower stages are given up, when the higher stage is attained. The path that leads to self-realization is called Brahmaajijnaasa, which is the topic of our consideration in the first section of this chapter. The second section deals with the jnaana path to self-realization proposed by Shankara. In the third section we elaborate the nature of release (Samaadhi) and the nature of the self-realized man (Brahmajnaani).

In this section we clarify the nature of Brahmaajijnaasa. Besides, we will also look into the methods proposed by Shankara in the attainment of the state of self-realization.

Here, we analyze the nature of Brahmaajijnaasa, the path to self-realization, by highlighting its meaning. Having spelt out the meaning of Brahmaajijnaasa, we would explicate its nature by distinguishing it from Brahmaanubhava, the self-realization.

Brahmaanubhava is an immediate and direct experience. So there is no need of any means to attain it. Besides, it is an absolute and trans-empirical experience, that it is not possible to attain it by the use of any empirical or relative means. But, though we cannot bring about Brahmaanubhava, still we can remove ignorance and pave the way for the realization of the self. The non-realization of the self is as a result of ignorance, and the removal of ignorance is all that we need to do in order that Brahmaanubhava can happen in us. "The attainment of the highest [Brahmaanubhava]", says Shankara, "means merely the removal of ignorance and nothing more".² In darkness, though the objects are in contact with the senses, still we are not able to perceive them because of the presence of darkness. When we remove the darkness, we are able to perceive the objects as they are. For example, in semi-darkness a stump of tree appears like a man; when light comes in, we can recognize the real nature of object in question, i.e., the tree stump.³ This is much the same in Brahmaanubhava. It is due to ignorance that the absolute reality, the Brahman, is seen as the world of phenomena. All that is required to attain self-realization is to remove ignorance that blinds one to see one's own nature. It is the wrong knowledge of the self that obstructs the perfect knowledge of the self, just as the perception of the silver in the pearl-shell obstructs the perception of the pearl-shell. When the obstruction of wrong knowledge is removed, the real nature of the self becomes self-revealed.⁴ Thus, for Shankara, "except for the removal of ignorance of the superimposition of the non-self on the self, no effort, whether bodily or mental is necessary for the realization of the self.⁵ 

Brahmaajijnaasa is the process of attaining Brahmaanubhava. The aspirant undertakes this process in order to remove ignorance that prevents him from attaining self-realization. The term `Brahmaajijnaasa' derives from two Sanskrit terms, viz., `Brahman' which means `absolute reality' and `jijnaasa' which means `wish to know'. So literally Brahmaajijnaasa means `a wish to know Brahman, the absolute reality'. A wish emerges spontaneously from the knowledge that something is achievable by effort and that when achieved it will lead to desired results. Thus, a wish implies all the efforts involved in achieving the desired result.⁶ Thus, by implication the term `Brahmaajijnaasa' means the deliberation on the upanishadic texts about Brahman, undertaken by the aspirant for getting direct knowledge of Brahman. `Wish' by implication means the deliberation resulting from the wish to know Brahman and `knowledge' means the special kind of direct knowledge of Brahman.<sup>7</sup> Both the verbs `to wish' and `to know' are transitive and must have their objects: `wish' has knowledge for its object and `knowledge' has Brahman as its object. But man must know first in order that he can wish the knowledge of Brahman. This knowledge is provided by the scriptures, viz., indirect, mediate and apparent knowledge that one gains from the study of scriptures. But the knowledge culminating in the direct realization of Brahman is the object of `the wish'. This knowledge of Brahman is as the result of the wish to know Brahman (Brahmaajijnassa). It involves intellectual deliberation on Brahman, moral life that opens one to the experience Brahman and the deep meditation on the mediate and indirect knowledge arrived at by the study of the scriptures. Thus, the knowledge arrived at in Brahmaajijnaasa is a mature knowledge, which culminates in the direct realization of Brahman.⁸

From what we have said in relation to the Sanskrit origins of the word `Brahmaajijnaasa', it is clear that this term stands for all the efforts an aspirant makes to move from the state of ignorance to the state of self-realization. It would involve all the different means used by the aspirant to attain self-realization. It would include the physical and moral efforts an aspirant puts into purify his body and mind. It consists firstly, the disciplining of learning and deliberation one acquires in the intellectual level, to study and understand the import of the scriptural statement about Brahman. Secondly, the guidance one gets from his Guru, in clarifying the doubts that may arise in the process of scriptural study. Thirdly, the meditation the aspirant undertakes to practice in order to have direct experience of Brahman. Thus, Brahmaajijnaasa is the path to self-realization. It would embrace the different means used and efforts made by the aspirant to transcendent the duality of the empirical order and attain the identity consciousness.⁹ 

Now that we have clarified the meaning of Brahmaajijnaasa, we can make an attempt to differentiate it from Brahmaanubhava, the goal of Brahmaajijnaasa.

Brahmaajijnaasa is a process, in which the seeker in an ascending manner moves towards Brahman by removing the state of ignorance that is characteristic of the phenomenal existence. The aspirant having taken upon himself the process Brahmaajijnaasa goes through its different stages. These help him to get rid of ignorance, which is the cause of duality and multiplicity. When ignorance is removed, and with it all multiplicity, the truth about oneself dawns. For Shankara, the jnaana path is the fundamental aspect of Brahmaajijnaasa, as only knowledge is able to remove ignorance. In jnaana path, by hearing is removed the doubt from an unprepared mind that the Upanishads cannot impart the knowledge of Brahman. Reflection removes the doubt that the self and Brahman cannot be one, especially by giving logical and reasonable arguments. Through meditation the mind is withdrawn from all distractions and things other than Brahman. This process of Brahmaajijnaasa gradually removes all traces of ignorance from the aspirant and thereby opens the way to Brahmaanubhava, the ultimate liberation. Hearing, reflection and meditation generate knowledge by the removal of ignorance. When all consequences of ignorance, such as duality and differences are removed, there dawns the self-knowledge, which is self-realization.¹⁰

Brahmaajijnaasa does not cause the absorption into Brahman, because it deals only with what is known from hearing. The knowledge attained through Brahmaajijnaasa is an indirect knowledge. The knowledge attained through the process Brahmaajijnaasa, by concentrating on the import of the scriptures is the highest intellectual knowledge possible. Nevertheless, Brahmaanubhava is not attained with Brahmaajijnaasa, but the former is above and beyond the latter, since the direct and immediate experience of one's self. Dr. Smet remarks the following about Brahmaajijnaasa and its relationship to Brahmaanubhava:

The occurrence of Brahmaanubhava is simultaneous with the removal of ignorance from the seeker. When, ignorance is removed, by the process of Brahmaajijnaasa, there follows immediately the truth about oneself, i.e., one's absolute absorption into Brahman. At this stage the indirect knowledge of reflection (vichaara) gives way to right discrimination (viveeka). Now, there is no activity and the intellect of the aspirant sees through the appearance, recognizing his oneness with Brahman. When this happens, the aspirant knows that he is Brahman and all duality and multiplicity disappears, since he realizes the fact that all is Brahman.¹² This realization of one's absorption into and identity with Brahman is Brahmaanubhava, the true liberation. The Brahmaajijnaasa is a preparation, while Brahmaanubhava is the end.

Now that we have clarified the nature of Brahmaajijnaasa, by exploring its meaning and distinguishing it from self-realization, we could move on to speak of the methods used by the Advaitin, in the process of Brahmaajijnaasa.

Shankara's Advaita Vedaanta recognizes a dualism in the process of Brahmaajijnaasa. In other words, he speaks of an indirect and a direct method in Brahmaajijnaasa. In this section, we could clarify each of these methods and the reason why Shankara advocated these dual methods. Besides, we would also indicate the primacyof the direct method in the attainment of self-realization.

By indirect methods Shankara means the path of action (karmayoga) and the path of devotion (bhaktiyoga). These open in the individual aspirant a willingness to surrender his energy in a life of service and to give with a loving heart. The willing surrender of one's life in generous service calls one to live a life of sacrifice and action. For such a life of action, it is necessary to work towards eliminating selfish motives and intentions that stem from animal instincts in man. Besides, the aspirant must learn to do everything he does without any self-interest (nishkaamakarma)¹³ Action, thus, done in love and faith would open the heart of the aspirant for higher level of existence. The life of sacrifice is a stream through which the divine flow can envelop the heart of the aspirant to a deeper and fuller life of love and devotion. Life of devotion prepares the seeker for deeper levels of sweetness and bliss. These transformations take place gradually, leading the seeker to still higher stages.¹⁴ We could consider these two indirect methods in some detail.

The path of action is proposed for persons of mixed temperaments, viz., persons who are both emotional and rational. These are energetic personalities who have an inherent orientation towards activity, work and service. Karma path calls for the simultaneous use of one's head and heart. A karmayogi dedicates his activities in love and devotion to the Lord. In the process, he sheds his personality off worldly thoughts and pleasures, gets his mind purified and his attention is turned to the contemplation of the supreme self, which is the source of his activity of love and service.¹⁵

In order to attain this goal of perfect action, which will lead to the contemplation of the self, the seeker of karma path must let go of his personal likes (ragga) and dislikes (dwesha) in performing his action. One should not do an action because one likes it; nor should one give up certain actions because he dislikes it. One must learn to overcome one's whims and fancies in performing actions. Thus, the greatest enemies of man are his likes and dislikes, for they make even the highest type of activity meaningless. Avoidance of negative activity does not consist in doing what one does not like, but rather in performing actions without any personal preferences. It consists in obtaining a sense of objectivity and using one's discriminating intellect to judge and decide on a proper course of action, irrespective of one's likes and dislikes. In this manner, one should be able to remove negative activity from one's life.¹⁶

Once a person brings about a sense of objectivity and steadiness by removing acts by likes and dislikes, he must cultivate positive activity. In the words of Giita, positive activity consists in acting dynamically surrendering all one's actions to the Lord, allowing one's thoughts to rest on the supreme self. Besides, such action must be free from egoism, hope and feverish excitement.¹⁷ This verse from Giita speaks of twofold characteristics of positive activity, viz., acting dynamically so as to use one's body, mind and intellect purposefully resting on the supreme Lord; and not to allow the energies produced by dynamic action be dissipated in an unproductive manner. The first characteristic involves engaging in constant action, using the body, because action builds up energy in the body, while inaction weakens a person's body. In performing the action one's thoughts must rest on the Lord, always becoming aware that the inner self is the foundation of one's actions. In this manner one builds up mental stamina and intellectual ability for work. Thus, positive activity consists in building up one's body, mind and intellect that the person is ready for genuine action. Secondly, once the energy of a person is built up by dynamic action that is resting on the Lord, the person must see that the energies thus built up should not be lost. There are three outlets that dissipate energy, viz., egoism, hope and excitement. Egoism and self-interest can vitiate a person's sense of purpose. So one must see that self-interest does not lead a person astray from the path of disinterested action (nishkaama karma). Again hope of enjoying the fruits of one's actions can de-rout a person from good intentions. So a person seeks the path of karma must detest craving for enjoyment. Besides, excitement brings unrest in a person's sphere of activity. An excited person cannot be fully responsible for his duties and responsibilities. Thus, egoism vitiates the past, by focusing on a person's past activities; the hope of enjoyment dissipates a person acting purposefully in the future; and excitement disturbs the present activity. When a seeker of the karma path performs dynamic action resting his thoughts on the Lord, and prevents egoism, hope and excitement to vitiate the energy in the threefold temporal dimensions of his life, he becomes a karmayogi.¹⁸ Having analyzed the path of action we could proceed to consider the path of devotion, the other indirect method.

Bhaktiyoga is meant for a person who is more emotional in nature, whose heart dominates his head. Such a person is more emotional, devotional and impulsive, while he is less rational, intellectual and discriminative. So persons of this nature could take recourse to bhaktiyoga. He often makes use of a personal God (Ishtadeevata) to pour out his love and devotion. He makes use of mantras, bhajans and chants to express his personal love for the Lord. His love and devotion for the Lord makes him single-minded in his attachment to the Lord. This, in turn, frees him from worldly attachments, which prepares him for deeper meditation and realization of self.¹⁹

When a person practices devotion to the Lord he experiences devotion in two ascending stages. Thus we can speak of two types of devotion, viz., bheda-upaasana and abheda-upaasana. In bheda-upaasana a difference-in-identity is kept in view. The seeker, in this state, while enjoys the delights of the union in love, keeps himself separate. Abheda-upaasana is a state, in which, the identity with the absolute is kept in view. Here, the aspirant gradually loses himself in the object of his love and worship. Thus, in the latter state, there is the possibility of identity consciousness, as life in the world does not seem anything more than the mental life of the seeker. Such an identity consciousness can take place in two different processes, viz., the process of sinking and the process of expansion. In the sinking process, the seeker feels that his soul is placed in the all- pervasive consciousness. Feeling the immanence of the bliss, the seeker surrenders his self completely. The complete surrender brings about psychological and spiritual transformations in the seeker. He experiences every mental modification in a new vision and meaning, as everything is viewed in relationship to the infinite. There is complete delight and deep satisfaction in the soul. The intensity of devotion in love and the inner delight and satisfaction make the finite self-consciousness to forget itself and be absorbed in the immanent infinite consciousness. The process of expansion consists in the gradual realization, in the seeker, that he is the immanent principle of the cosmos. When this realization takes over the aspirant, he does not any more feel that he is placed in the vastness of the cosmos, but rather finds the entire universe is the reflection of his own being. In other words, he feels within himself the totality of existence. In the process, his sense of finite personality dissolves into an impersonal expansive conscious existence.²⁰ Having looked into the indirect methods of Brahmaajijnaasa, viz., karmayoga and bhaktiyoda, we could make an attempt to study the direct method in the next section.

Direct method refers to the jnaana path to self-realization. Direct method of jnaana path is meant for a person, who is rational and whose head dominates his heart. As a result, such a person is more intellectual and discriminative, while less emotional and impulsive. He is not moved by his feelings, as his intellect is able to view events impartially. A man of intellect is not satisfied in postulating a God and worshipping Him. But a man of wisdom looks for arguments to justify such postulation. The significant characteristic of a person with an intellect bend of mind is his ability to discriminate between the phenomenal and the transcendental. He has the propensity for deeper meditation and experience of the transcendental self.²¹

Jnaanayoga is designed for persons of intelligence, who can ask fundamental questions about this universe and draw answers out of their reflection. The knowledge they acquire is not merely intellectual, but experiential and existential. The jnaana path is described as `nitya anitya viveeka vichaara', `the discrimination between the eternal and the temporal by way of reflection'. Thus, jnaanayoga constantly attempts to distinguish the permanent from the impermanent, the noumena and the phenomena, the transcendental and the terrestrial, and the real and the unreal, so that the seeker of knowledge can realize the ultimate knowledge of Brahman as identical with Aatman. ²² For Advaitins jnaana path is the only way for the direct experience of Brahman, as it is only true knowledge that can remove ignorance. Thus, the direct method of jnaana path involves a deep understanding of the illusory nature of the phenomenal world and the fundamental oneness of everything in Brahman. Besides, it implies a discriminative consciousness that would enable the aspirant to break through the appearance and apprehend the underlying absolute reality behind the manifold world of everyday experience.²³ 

Though Shankara was convinced of the primacy of the direct method of knowledge for the removal of ignorance, he did give a place for the indirect methods, viz., the path of action and the path of devotion. He accepted them because their practical necessity, as vast majority of people in the world would not be able to give themselves directly to the demands of a life that involves reflection and intellectual activity. In other words, direct method would not be possible for everyone, as all may not be able to attain the vision of pure reason and discriminative consciousness. But if persons have given themselves to lower levels of existence, i.e., service and love, they would gradually come to desire wisdom, transcending empirical state of existence. It was Shankara's belief that, for most people, the path of knowledge can begin to have any meaning, when they have satisfied the will and the heart, as it will lead to the realization of the absolute behind the illusory and the relative. The focus of niskaama karma on the service of others and bhakti on love of the supreme Lord, would make the life of real renunciation easy while living in the phenomenal world. This is probably the reason that Shankara retained the jiiva -- Iishvara ideal in his system of thought, even though he was convinced of the truth of Brahman -- Aatmana identity. Thus, Shankara proposed the indirect methods to persons dominated by emotion and action, that having satisfied the needs in the levels of emotion and action, they can move towards the higher intellectual and discriminative consciousness. In other words, Shankara admitted the possibility of a life of love in service and service in love, only as a help to those seekers of Brahman, who otherwise would not have had the opportunity to open themselves to a life of reflection (vichaara) and discrimination (viveeka).²⁴

In speaking of the various means to remove ignorance Shankara argues that neither action nor devotion are able to remove ignorance. These two means work in the realm of ignorance. The former concentrates on performing various actions in the world of phenomena, while the latter helps the aspirant to concentrate on the supreme Lord. Both action and devotion presuppose duality and are not opposed to ignorance. A man who performs good actions and a devoted man can still be in the illusion of ignorance and may never know the true nature of Brahman. Therefore, action and devotion do not succeed in removing ignorance. Shankara very strongly argues for the primacy of knowledge, in the removing ignorance. Knowledge is directly opposed to ignorance. Knowledge and ignorance about a particular reality cannot coexist in a person, for knowledge drives away ignorance. Though knowledge cannot bring about self-realization, still it can indirectly remove ignorance by its very presence. "Whether ignorance means, doubt or false knowledge", says Shankara, "it is always removable by knowledge only, but not by action in any form, for there is no contradiction between ignorance and action.²⁵ Thus, indirect paths of service and love are not by themselves capable of removing ignorance, even though they can open the individual aspirant to a life of wisdom gradually.²⁶ From what we have said so far, it is clear that while Shankara holding for the primacy of jnaana, recognizes the significance of karma and bhakti, for pragmatic reasons.

In the foregoing section, we clarified the nature of Brahmaajijnaasa, the path to self-realization. We also highlighted the indirect methods of karmayoga and bhaktiyoga and their need in the process of Brahmaajijnaasa and their limitation in removing ignorance. Besides, we introduced the direct method of the jnaana path. In the following section, we attempt to elaborate Shankara's jnaana path and its stages in the process of Brahmaajijnaasa.

In order to study the scriptures and thereby remove ignorance, Shankara proposes certain physical, moral and intellectual preparations. These form the three stages of Brahmaajijnaasa. The physical preparation aims at helping the seeker to attain full control over his body and this done by what Vedaantins call Hathayoga. The moral preparation has for its goal the purification of the mind, by removing all inclinations to evil. The intellectual preparation intends to grasp the full import of the scriptures with the intellectual study of the scriptural texts. We could, now, elaborate these three in detail.

In this section we would like to clarify the meaning of Hathayoga and its main limps, viz., posture (aasana) and breath-control (praanaayaama).

The high intellectual penetration involved in the study of the scriptures implies that the seeker of Brahmaabubhava has full control over his body. The stability of the gross body is required for its normal functioning. When it comes to preparing oneself for higher intellectual and spiritual training, there is the need to discipline the body sufficiently, so as to make it a fit instrument for the realization of Brahman. The system of training that prepares the body for such higher state of existence is called Hathayoga.

The term `Hathayoga' comes from two Sanskrit terms `hatha' and `yoga'. The term `hatha' means violence, force and oppression. The word `yoga' means a technique prescribed for the removal of the tendencies (vaasanas) of the body and the mind. Thus, Hathayoga means physical disciplines, which an individual undertakes, which involves a certain amount of violence, force or oppression to the body. Therefore, the practice of Hathayoga involves a certain amount of compulsion, either administered by others or by oneself. The aim of Hathayoga is to purify the tendencies of the body and mind that the intellect can begin to reason, which would enable the aspirant to study the scripture and thereby start the process of Brahmaajijnaasa. Many practices, such as different forms of self-torture, standing on one leg, holding up arms, inhaling smoke with head inverted, piercing different parts of the body with sharp instruments and similar practices are included in the Hathayoga.²⁷ It increases vitality in the body, gives good health and preserves great amount of energy within the aspirant, as Hathayoga opens the aspirant for the life-process of the cosmic praana.²⁸

Though there are many practices included in Hathayoga, its two main limps are posture (aasana) and breath-control (praanaayaama), to which we turn our attention in this section.

The first limp of Hathayoga is posture (aasana). It consists in placing the body in various positions that would lead to the discipline of the bodily system. Aasana helps the body to get rid of restlessness that blocks deep reflection and concentration. Posture brings the entire physical organism of the aspirant under the control of his will. It is different from other types of physical exercises, as its aim is to make the body best fitted for the highest type of experience. The hathayogin keeps his body free from all impurities, his nervous system in tact and gains control over the different muscles of the body by the practice of the aasanas.²⁹

Speaking of posture Shankara says that the real posture is one in which the meditation on Brahman flows spontaneously and unceasingly. He did not approve any posture that brings pains and thus distracts the mind from meditation on Brahman. Thus, for Shankara, the posture that a true aspirant of the spiritual path must learn and practice is that which genuinely helps meditation in the highest level, by bringing a serene, calm and relaxed state of the body.³⁰ Shankara mentions two of such yogic postures that are truly conducive to the highest level of meditation, viz., Siddhaasana and Mulabandha. The former is a posture, which can help the aspirant to have a depth level concentration and meditation that can bring about complete merger with Brahman. The latter is a posture that can assist the aspirant to open his mind so totally to Brahman, that it can take hold of the mind of the aspirant, in the process restraining the mind from all other pushes and pulls.³¹ The practice of the above mentioned aasanas bring about an equipoise of all the limps of the body (dehasaamya), which is conducive to the experience of total absorption in the Brahman.³² Thus, for Shankara, while seated in meditation one should definitely use postures, but one's main focus should not be centered on posture. A mere turning of attention on posture alone by straightening the body is compared to a dried up tree, which does not bring about equipoise of limps. Therefore, a person should use postures that would open the person's whole attention on meditation on Brahman. In other words, practice of posture as an end is of no avail; but it must be practiced only in view of genuine help for meditation.³³

Genuine practice of the posture helps the aspirant to the practice of the second limp, breath-control (praanaayaama). It is a method with the help of which, the aspirant controls vital power of breathing, which is the basis of organic life. It keeps under check one's inhalation and exhalation. For Patanjali, the founder of the Yoga System, praanaayaama involves controlling the motion of inhalation and exhalation. There are three steps in breath-control. The first one is puraka, which consists in taking in breath; the second is kumbahaka, which means to hold the breath taken in for some time in the lungs; and the last step is rechaka, which is to throw out the breath retained in the lungs during the second stage. It was Patanjali's opinion that the mind would be naturally controlled if one practices the restraining of breath and thereby prevents mind's communication with the external world. But, Shankara does not subscribe to Patanjali's view. He holds that the breath is entirely dependent on the mind and not the mind on breathing. Therefore, by restricting the breathing one cannot restrain the mind. On the contrary, the control of the mind would effectively bring about restraining of the breath. So the aspirant, instead of wasting his energy in his attempt to restrain the breath, must always try to control the mind. When the mind is controlled, it would automatically lead to the restraining of the breath.³⁴

Thus, Shankara holds for the superiority of the mind over breathing and not vice versa. This makes him give the following definition of praanaayaama. "The restraint of all modifications of the mind by regarding all mental states like chitta as Brahman alone, is called praanaayaama." ³⁵ Thus, genuine practice of breath-control is not a mere breathing in of air, retaining of air in the lungs and breathing out of the retained air. If this were so, praanaayaama would be a function done in relation to the physical sense organ of breathing, viz., the nose. But, for Shankara, breath-control has to do with the control of the mind in every aspect and meditation on Brahman. That is why he says the following regarding praanaayaama: "The negation of the phenomenal world is known as rechaka (breathing out), the thought `I am verily Brahman' is called puraka (breathing in) and the steadiness of that thought thereafter is called kumbhaka (restraining the breath). This is the real course of praanaayaama for the enlightened, whereas the ignorant only torture the nose."³⁶ 

Thus, for an Advaitin, praanaayaama if practiced as advocated by Shankara, can lead to complete control over the modifications of the mind (chitta-vritti). It helps him to achieve complete will power over one's life force. If practiced consistently, one can learn to restrain the vital process completely. According to Advaitin, praanaayaama has two purposes. Firstly, it brings about perfection in the body. Secondly, it helps to awaken the praanic dynamism, i.e., vast stored up energy, which opens the aspirant for extra-ordinary consciousness. As a result, the moral and spiritual possibilities are awakened due to the practice of praanaayaama. Breath-control, thus, helps the aspirant to control instincts, passions and impulses that disturb the peace of mind. It can be practiced in two ways. Firstly, as a purely physical practice, to keep the heart beat under control, without any plan of the control of the mind. Secondly, as a psycho physical practice to control the lower passions, to open in the seeker higher qualities and to help mental and spiritual discipline. The practice of praanaayaama in the latter way is of great help to the seeker of Brahmaanubava.³⁷

When one has completed the practice of Hathayoga, he has made the first step into the process of Brahmaajijnaasa. The total control of body, by way of posture and breath-control prepares the seeker of Brahmaanubhava to move towards the next stage of moral preparation.

In this section we would begin by pointing out the need, on the part of the aspirant, for moral transformation, in order that he can move on to the next step of Brahmaajijnaasa, viz., the study of scriptures. Then we proceed to the content of the moral preparation, i.e., the practice of four disciplines known as the instruments of spiritual path and the four qualities that the seeker of Brahman should acquire in order to be worthy of self-realization. Besides, we would also look into a few other requirements that the aspirant must practice on his way to Brahmaanubhava.

3.2.2.1. Need for Moral Preparation

If the intellect is able to understand the import of the scriptural statements, it must be pure. The knowledge of Brahman revealed in the scripture, though expressed in terms of duality, still is the highest knowledge that can be known by the human intellect in the empirical realm. This knowledge cannot be grasped if the intellect is not open to understand eternal truth. Just as a stained mirror does not reflect things clearly, so is an impure mind cannot grasp Brahman intellectually from the study of the scriptures. Shankara affirms this point in his commentary on Mundaka Upanishad Bhaashya as follows:

Shankara uses another analogy to illustrate the same fact. Fire, by its nature, is able to burn the wood. But if the wood is wet, fire is not able to burn it. In the same way intellect, though it is able to know and understand the import of the scriptural statements, because it is clouded by passions and attachments to things, does not grasp Brahman from the study of the mahaavaakyas.³⁹ In other words, scriptural knowledge fails to accomplish its end, if man is not perfectly pure of heart. The capacity of the mind to discriminate between truth and untruth is weakened, when passions and sensual pleasures sway the mind.⁴⁰ Thus, it is important to prepare oneself spiritually and to free the intellect from all passions, attachments and prejudices, in order to know the true nature of Brahman from the study of the scriptures and from the instructions of the Guru. So it is important that an aspirant goes through a course of moral preparation before he makes a serious attempt to study the scripture. Therefore, Shankara proposes four disciplines called the instruments of spiritual knowledge (sadhanachatushtaya), which the aspirant must practice before he ever begins the next state of the process of Brahmaajijnaasa, by the study of the scripture, under the guidance of the Guru. Now, we could turn out attention to the study of these four disciplines.

The four disciplines are aimed at preparing the inner personality of the aspirant, that he would be able to grasp and take in the truth found in the scriptural texts. It the aspirant works on these disciplines, he would be able to get the best out of the study of the scripture. The greater an aspirant is rooted in these practices the greater his understanding of the mahaavaakyas. Thus, the proposed disciplines are not aimed at frightening the beginner in the spiritual path, but to help him in pursuit of spiritual knowledge.⁴¹ We could now briefly speak of each of these disciplines of spiritual path in the following section.

The first discipline is the destruction of sins through the practice of austerities (tapobhih ksinapaapaanaam), which is a discipline at the physical level. The practice of austerities (tapas) does not consist in giving oneself to self-torturing, which would frustrate the true spirit of the aspirant. But, rather, it envisages two types of disciplines at the physical level, viz., a negative discipline which aims at preventing sensual dissipation by exercising self-control and a positive one that utilizes the conserved energy to move towards the highest ideal of self-realization.⁴² These two disciplines correspond to the first two limps of raajayoga ⁴³ of Patanjali, the founder of the Yoga System. The first limp of raajayoga is yama, which consists of five general disciplines of self-purification. They are the following. Non-injury, which involves not harming others by thoughts, words and deeds. Non-lying, which consists in maintaining identity between thoughts, words and deeds. Non-stealing, i.e., giving up the desire for other's things. Continence, i.e., abstaining from sexual intercourse and lustful thoughts. Non-acceptance of gifts which would likely to stand in the way of meditation.⁴⁴ The second limp of raajayoga, niyama consists in the practice of five virtues. They are the following. Cleanliness consists in the purity of body and mind. Contentment is the acceptance of what comes in life joyfully. Austerity is the practice of mortification. Study of the scriptures implies the repetition of the mahaavaakyas and the eternal syllable `Aum'. Worship of God involves knowledge of and loving devotion to God.⁴⁵

Shankara says that the negative discipline of yama and the positive discipline of niyama should not be practiced mechanically, but must be done by means of the knowledge that everything is Brahman. If practiced in this manner most of these negative restraints and positive practices will truly help the aspirant.⁴⁶ When these two disciplines are applied not mechanically, but intelligently with the thought of Brahman, though their practice may involve pain, they would bring satisfaction and contentment. Besides, they free the aspirant from sin (paapa) and the activities, which produce agitation of the mind and destroy mental peace.⁴⁷ Thus, the first spiritual discipline, the discipline in the physical level, with its positive and negative practices, destroys sins and inclination to sin in the aspirant and generates in him purity of body and mind.

The second spiritual discipline aims at restraining the aspirant in the level of the mind. It is aimed at bringing in the seeker a calmness of mind (saantaanaam). The mind, by its very nature, has the tendency to seek objects of the world through the help of the senses. The mind in seeking and knowing the objects goes out through the senses and modifies itself in the form of the object. It is in relation to these modifications of the mind (chitta-vrittis) it knows the objects. In doing so the mind remembers past enjoyments and anticipates in thought future possibilities. These, in turn, cause agitation in the mind, which prevents it from focusing itself on higher knowledge. The discipline at the level of the mind is aimed at disciplining the mind from drifting into the enjoyments of past objects and ruminating about future joys. It fundamentally consists in not allowing the mind to get lost in objects, whether past, present or future by removing its attention from the senses which are mind's gate ways to the world of objects, thereby attaining mental peace and tranquillity.⁴⁸ This mental discipline is comparable to the fifth limp of raajayoga, viz., pratyaahaara (withdrawal of senses), which consists in removing the focus of the mind's attention from the senses. In other words, in pratyaahaara, the aspirant is helped to withdraw the sense organs from the respective objects, which happens only when the mind does not allow it to be modified into objects by shutting down the senses.⁴⁹ Shankara says that such a withdrawal would be complete only when the aspirant realizes that Aatman is in all objects, allows this thought to envelop the mind and let the mind be absorbed in the supreme consciousness. ⁵⁰ In this manner, the turning of the mind from the senses and sense objects, and turning it towards higher levels of being makes the mind to attain the calmness of mind (saantaanaam).⁵¹

That which helps the attainment of mental equipoise and calmness is the practice of silence (mauna). To quote Shankara: "The wise should always be one with the silence where from words together with the mind turn back without reaching it."⁵² What Shankara means by this statement is that silence is where Aatman dwells, i.e., in the depths of one's inner silence dwells the true self and a mind crowded with words will never be able to reach it. The more the mind withdraws itself from words that are centered on the senses and experiences silence (maunam) it would arrive at the experience of Aatman. Shankara says further: "Who can describe That (Brahman) whence words turn away? (So silence is inevitable while describing Brahman). . . . [Therefore] silence is known among sages as congenital [i.e., inseparable from Brahman]. [This is why] the observance of silence by restraining speech . . . is ordained by the teachers of Brahman for the ignorant."⁵³ Thus, for Shankara, the second spiritual discipline, aimed at attaining calmness of mind, involves both the silencing of the senses, by silencing the modifications of the mind in all its aspects. Therefore, the more an aspirant allows silence, which, according to Shankara, is congenital with Brahman, in his life, to that extent he would achieve mental poise and peacefulness.

The third spiritual discipline is one that focuses on the intellectual level, aims at freeing the aspirant from all desires (viitaraaginaam). A desire, is nothing else, but a plan entertained by the intellect to set right a lack felt within a person. When a person experiences an imperfection within himself, he sets in motion a scheme of action, prompted by the desire to experience a sense of well-being in the area of his lack. As long as a person is intellectually involved in accomplishing the plan that stems from desire, his mind remains agitated and disturbed. The imperfection experienced by the person often relates to the realm of his body, mind and intellect. The person experiences this lack, and the desire to rectify this lack by a plan of action remains only as long as he identifies himself with these mental faculties, which he believes are the source of the imperfection. Thus, a person's identification of himself with the limited faculties of the body, mind and intellect, is the basis of all desires. On the other hand, if a person removes his focus of attention from these faculties and sees his life in relation to the supreme Brahman, then he would not perceive himself as identical with the limited mind-body organism. In doing so a person removes himself from the source of all imperfections experienced by him. As a result, he does not any more experience imperfections, for he knows that his real being is all-perfect and eternal Aatman. When this thought takes hold of a person, not only does he experience imperfections, but also sheds all desires, which emerge from the realization of imperfection within himself. Thus, withdrawing one's attention from the material layers of one's personality and concentrating on Brahman would effect the cessation of all imperfections in a person, and so bring about the end of all desires that disturb and agitate the mind.⁵⁴

This discipline at the intellectual levels is similar to the sixth limp of raajayoga, viz., dhaaranaa (concentration or one pointed attention). It consists in holding the mind on to some particular object. In other words, dhaaranaa is the total concentration, in which the mind's focus is fixed fully on to an object. Shankara commenting on this point says that when the mind is fully concentrated on an object and realizes it as Brahman discards all names and forms superimposed on the object by ignorance, then alone a person is said to have reached the culmination of dhaaranaa.⁵⁵ To quote Shankara: "The steadiness of the mind through realization of Brahman wherever the mind goes, is known as supreme dhaaranaa."⁵⁶ According to Shankara, one can attain this state of concentration by genuine practice of solitude and focusing on Brahman, who is beyond temporal distinction. "Solitude is known as space wherein the universe does not exist in the beginning, end or middle, but whereby it is pervaded at all times."⁵⁷ When an aspirant enters the state of solitude, he becomes Brahman, who alone is solitary, since it admits no second at any time. Thus, by practicing solitude, the aspirant is able to withdraw his attention from everything, including the distinction of time, viz., beginning, middle and end, and concentrate on non-dual Brahman, in whom resides the totality of time (kaala).⁵⁸ When an aspirant disciplines his intellect so as to arrive at such a state of deep concentration, wherein he is one with the solitary Brahman, all the desires that emerge from the experience of imperfection fall apart and the aspirant possesses compete well being and peace of mind.⁵⁹

The fourth spiritual discipline is a discipline at the spiritual level. It is the consequence of the first three disciplines, viz., disciplines of the body, the mind and the intellect. It aims at creating in the aspirant a yearning for liberation (mumukshuunaam). In this discipline the mental energy generated by the disciplines of the body, the mind and the intellect is conserved and directed for gaining liberation (moksha). It involves the rejection of all the worldly desires and substituting this rejection with the desire for gaining spiritual liberation.⁶⁰ This discipline is facilitated by what Shankara calls the drik-sthiti (fixing the vision). It consists in directing the aspirant's vision on Brahman alone, which is pure consciousness, and wherein ceases all distinctions of the seer, the sight and the seen. In other words, one must convert one's everyday vision of the world into one of knowledge, in which one views as Brahman. Shankara calls this the noblest vision, because in it there is no distinction of high or low, great or small, since everything is merged in Brahman.⁶¹ The fixing of vision on Brahman in the fourth discipline is possible because by way of the first three disciplines, the aspirant is purified in every aspect of his personality. Therefore, he can now direct all his energies to fix his vision on Brahman and desire his oneness with Brahman. Thus, the fixing of the vision on Brahman makes the aspirant to let go all worldly desires and desire nothing else but liberation. In this manner a total orientation towards Brahman is brought about.⁶² 

These four spiritual disciplines -- the disciplines at the physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual levels -- help the aspirant move from the world to Brahman and to substitute one's worldly desires with desire for liberation. In going through these four disciplines, genuine moral preparation in the aspirant happens. As the result of these practices the aspirant becomes a qualified person (adhikari) to begin the study of the scriptural texts. In the process the moral preparation of the adhikari acquires four qualities,⁶³ to which we turn our attention in the next section.

The qualified person acquires, as the result of the four disciplines called the instruments of spiritual knowledge (sadhanachatushtaya), four qualities. They are the following. The discrimination between the real and the unreal (viveeka); detachment from the unreal, i.e., renunciation (vairaagya); the practice of six fold virtues (shadsampatti) -- calmness (shama), self-control (dama), self-settledness(uparati), forbearance (titiksha), faith (shraddha) and complete concentration (samaadhaana); and hunger for self-realization (mumukshvata).⁶⁴ Each of these qualities morally prepares the student for the study of the scriptures and, therefore, they can be considered, as moral conditions required of the student, before ever he can undertake the deliberate and serious study of the scriptures. We could briefly describe each of them in the following sections.

The first moral condition required of the adhikari that he can begin his move towards the study of the scriptures is discrimination between the eternal and the non-eternal (nitya anitya vastu viveeka). It consists in an intuitive and firm conviction that Brahman alone is the absolute ground of all things, that which is really real and that all other things are unreal and phenomenal. According to Vedaantasaara it "consists of the discrimination that `Brahman alone is permanent substance' [unlimited by space and time] and that all things other than It, are transient."⁶⁵ Discrimination is the most fundamental quality that is necessary in an individual, because without it the other moral conditions are not possible. In other words, if one has not discriminated between the real and the unreal and has not recognized the absoluteness of Brahman there is no motivation to strive for its attainment.⁶⁶

The second moral quality needed for the removal of ignorance is renunciation (vairaagya). It consists in not seeking the enjoyments of the fruits here and hereafter. Shankara defines renunciation as follows: "The indifference with which one treats the excreta of a crow -- such an indifference all objects of enjoyment from the realm of Brahmaa the realm of gods] to this world (in view of their perishable nature) is verily called pure vairaagya."⁶⁷ If a person renounces the enjoyment of this world, in expectation of better enjoyment in the next life, it would be a renunciation tainted with desires. Such a renunciation is not a true renunciation and it would not open the door for true knowledge. But a renunciation that comes out of the deliberation on the passing nature of this world and undertaken in recognition of the ultimate truth of Brahman is pure renunciation that would lead to higher levels of knowledge.⁶⁸ Thus, genuine practice of renunciation implies, firstly the negation of one's little self (jiiva) and secondly the assertion of the reality of Aatman. When a person gives up the ego's claims of `I', `me', `my' and `mine', thereby rejects egoistic feelings that engender one's false personality and asserts that his ultimate self is the universal spirit, a person truly practices renunciation. Such a renunciation truly leads a person to knowledge.⁶⁹ 

The practice of such renunciation implies rigorous self-discipline to control the inner tendency of the aspirant to wander amidst sensuous experience and enjoy it. Renunciation is aimed at purification of emotions, perfection of the mental being and mastery over thought-consciousness. It would enable the aspirant to eliminate lawless tendencies, impulses and tendencies of animal nature, and build up good habits of mind.⁷⁰ Renunciation is, thus, the giving up of all the pleasures of the eyes, the ears, and the other senses. By renunciation one also gives up objects of transitory enjoyment, the desire for the body, as well as for the highest kind of spirit-body of a god.⁷¹ It is an attitude indifference to all the seen and unseen results attainable by various means, whereby one becomes devoted to the scriptural teaching, and not carried away by one's own natural desires. But renunciation is not the state of absolute desirelessness or Brahmaanubhava. Rather it is a state where one desires nothing but self-realization.⁷² 

In renunciation one forgoes the pleasures the world can offer in order to concentrate on the study of the scriptures. Therefore, a life of renunciation gives the aspirant the opportunity to go for uninterrupted search after the goal of human existence, by a deeper understanding of the mahaavaakyas. Any person who is interested in absolute freedom must take every step to transcend earthly ties and involvement, by way of renunciation. Vedaantins speak of two types of renunciation, viz., the vibidisha sannyaasa and the vidwat sannyaasa. The Vibidisha sannyaasa is the renunciation for the acquisition of knowledge. It is the renunciation practiced by the seeker. It does not merely consist in giving up worldly pleasures, but rather involves s systematic seeking of the life of wisdom. The aspirant while practicing this type of renunciation, besides denouncing attachment to the phenomenal enjoyments seeks after hearing and reflecting about Aatman and concentrating upon it. The Vidwat sannyaasa is a renunciation one practices after the attainment of true knowledge. Complete freedom from all desires and activities is characteristic of this type of renunciation. Thus, it is an existence without desire, in which renunciation coexists with true knowledge.⁷³ 

Thirdly the aspirant should try to live a virtuous life by the practice of six treasures (shadsampatti). When practiced, these virtues will help the aspirant's inner faculties and make the cultivation of higher knowledge possible. The six virtues are the following. Firstly, calmness (shama), which consists in developing the quality of inner serenity, that one can dwell on Brahman after abandoning all the desires by renunciation. Secondly, self-control (dama), which helps the aspirant to restrain his senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, and thus open him to hear and listen to the instructions of the teacher. Thirdly, self-settledness (uparati) is the withdrawal of all forms of enjoyments. It helps the aspirant to relinquish all the joys of worldly life and embrace the life of a monk (sannyaasin). Apparently uparati differs very little from shama and dama. But there is a real difference between the former and the latter two. In practicing shama and dama there is an effort to restrain the mind's outgoing propensities, such as, curbing the mind's attention from all objects except hearing the scriptures, thinking of their meaning and meditating on them, and restraining external sense organs respectively. But in uparati the equipoise of the mind becomes spontaneous and no effort is made to gain it. Fourthly, forbearance (titiksha) is the endurance of all sufferings in life. It helps the aspirant not to be agitated by love and hate, pleasure and pain and all such pairs of opposites. Fifthly, faith (shraddhaa) the firm conviction and intuitive belief in the existence of the ultimate reality. At the same it is not a mechanical or unquestioning belief, but a conviction based on intellectual understanding of what is taught in the scriptures about the ultimate reality. Sixthly, complete concentration (samaadhaana) is the fixing of the mind on Brahman as taught by the scripture and competent teacher. These six virtues direct one's attention to the attainment of Brhamaanubhava.⁷⁴

The fourth moral quality of the adhikari is his hunger for self-realization (mumukshvata). It consists in possessing an intense desire to get rid of ignorance and to attain Brahmaanubhava. "It is an intense longing of the student to free himself from all bondage pertaining to the body, the mind and the ego."⁷⁵ It is not a restless desire, but a result of the ethical practices mentioned above. Without this longing for liberation the ethical practices are really meaningless because a man may become morally perfect and may achieve many supernatural powers, but if the desire for self-realization is absent in him, all his virtues will be of no significance.⁷⁶ It is the longing and desire for true knowledge or self-realization that gives motivation and meaning to the whole process of Brahmaajijnaasa.

We have looked into the four disciplines of the spiritual path and the four qualities required of a qualified student to undertake the study of the scriptures, in the last two sections. In the present section, we could move on to consider some other general requirements demanded of an adhikari that would also facilitate the scriptural study.

The aspirant can begin his study only if he practiced a life of chastity (brahmachaarya) and other austerities of student life prescribed by the Vedas. Besides, he also must acquire knowledge of the contents of the Vedaangas, books auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedaangas include the science of proper articulation and pronunciation (shiksha), etymological explanation of difficult Vedic words (nirukta), the science of prosody (chhandas) astronomy (jyotisha) and ritual and ceremonies (kalpa).⁷⁷ Regarding the last of the Vedaangas, viz., ceremonies, there are a number of them which the adhikari is expected to practice or avoid practicing. The aspirant (pramaataa) is expected to avoid the practice of kaamya karma, which are ceremonies performed with a definite motive or desire, such as, jyotishtoma, which enables the performer to get the desired fruit like living in heaven.⁷⁸ He is also asked to refrain from performing nishidda karma (the forbidden acts), for they bring undesired results, such as, going to hell. These forbidden acts include actions like slaying a Brahmin, drinking and other similar vices.⁷⁹ The qualified student must practice nitya karma, which include sandhyaa vandana, such as, morning, noon and evening prayers, which are obligatory for the three higher castes. The non-performance of nitya karma though may not constitute a new sin, but will weaken a person's will, thereby prevent his propensity to check the inclinations to commit new sins.⁸⁰ Besides, the seeker of the scriptural study must practice naimittika karma, which are rites performed on special occasions.⁸¹ The aspirant also must practice rites of penance (praayaschittas), such as chaandraayana.⁸² He is also expected to practice devotions (upaasanas).⁸³ 

The practice of nitya karma and similar other works are aimed at purifying the mind, by way of destruction of sin and acquisition of virtue. The purification of the mind effects in the aspirant an awareness of the nature of the phenomenal existence (samsaara). From the recognition of the peripheral nature of samsaara results renunciation (vairaagya), which gives rise to desire for liberation. The desire for liberation gives the incentive to search for the means of attaining it. From this search for the means arises the practice of yoga, which leads to the habitual tendency of the mind to concentrate in the knowledge of the meaning of the mahaavaakyas, such as `That art Thou', which destroys ignorance and identity of the self with Brahman is experienced. Thus, the regular practice of nitya karma other similar practices lead the seeker to the highest knowledge. The upaasanas aim at helping the aspirant in concentration of the mind on the Ishtadeevata and deepen it by loving devotion.⁸⁴ In this manner all such practices help the adhikari to build up genuine openness to the inner self and universal Brahman, thereby facilitates the study of the scripture.

While the aspirant goes through the four disciplines, practices the four qualities and performs other practices, he must never forget the fact that self-realization cannot be attained by the direct and mechanical performance of these spiritual practices. While not undermining the value and efficacy of these practices, he must remember that these disciplines are only preliminary preparations necessary for gaining ultimate experience of self-realization and the final removal of ignorance is effected only at the dawn of true knowledge. This can be explained with the help the illustration of the role of fire in cooking. Before fire is used to cook the food, the raw food is prepared by way of cleaning, peeling and cutting. These are necessary preparations in the cooking process. The real cooking is done when fire is applied on the food. It is fire that really and in actual fact cooks the food. In the same way, it is knowledge of the self that leads to final liberation, even though all other spiritual disciplines the adhikari has to go through are auxiliary preparations leading to the dawn of knowledge. It is very significant that the aspirant constantly remembers this truth, through out the process of Brahmaajijnaasa, the path to self-realization.⁸⁵

We have looked into the various aspects of the moral preparation the aspirant has to go through in order that he becomes fully qualified to move into the next stage of Brahmaajijnaasa, the intellectual preparation. Intellectual preparation consists in the study of the import of the mahavaakyas, under the guidance of the Guru. The topic of the intellectual preparation occupies our attention, as we move into the next section.

The aspirant who is endowed with the above mentioned disciplines of spiritual knowledge is qualified to undertake the actual study of the scriptures which will, in turn, bring about the actual removal of ignorance. Shankara says: "This knowledge [that the self is Brahman] should be imparted only to him whose mind has been pacified, who has controlled his senses and is freed from all defects, who has practiced the duties enjoined by the scriptures and is possessed of good qualities, who is always obedient to the teacher and aspires only after liberation and nothing else."⁸⁶ The moral disciplines purify the intellect of the aspirant, freeing him from all passions and attachment, so that he can give himself uninterruptedly to the study of the scriptures.

More than other two stages of Brahmaajijnaasa, in the stage of intellectual preparation the role of the Guru is very significant. Fully qualified student cannot venture into the vast ocean of scriptural learning, unless competent Guru leads him into it. Even a person, who is well versed in the scriptures, should not undertake the journey towards Brahman without the guidance of a Guru. Therefore, for Shankara, instructions of the Guru are absolutely necessary, for the knowledge of Brahman, whether the aspirant is a person with scriptural knowledge or a qualified beginner (adhikari). Shankara affirms this in the Mundaka Upanishad Bhaashya as follows: "One though versed in scriptures, should not search independently after the knowledge of Brahman."⁸⁷ What Shankara implies by this statement is that every seeker of knowledge of Brahman must sit at the feet of the proper and competent Guru. Now we must clarify the nature of a proper and competent Guru. For Shankara, the Guru is a spiritual guide, who is learned in the Vedas, desireless and sinless. He says in his commentary on Brihdaaranyaka Upanishad that the Guru is "one who is learned in the Vedas, without sin and not overcome by desire."⁸⁸ The genuine Guru is one who is well versed in the study of the Vedas and who has knowledge of the true import of the meaning of the Vedaantic aphorisms.⁸⁹ Thus, the Guru is a true teacher of knowledge of Brahman to any one who wishes to make the journey towards Brahman.⁹⁰ Other than these qualities, there is one quality that is most significant for a Guru being genuine is that he lives entirely in Brahman (Brahmanishtha). Shankara explaining this word `Brahamanishtha' says that the Guru is one who, after renouncing all forms of karma, is centered on Brahman, devoid of all attributes and one without a second.⁹¹ In other words, the true teacher is one who has experienced the identity between his self and Brahman. Shankara says that the seeker of knowledge of Brahman should approach such a Guru in the spirit of humility and service, and with suitable gifts in his hands.⁹² When a student approaches the Guru in this manner, the Guru through his infinite grace instructs the pupil by the method of apavaada (de-superimposition) and removes all superimposition (adhyaaropa) on Brahman, thus, prepares him for the knowledge of Brahman.⁹³ Mundaka Upanishad states: "To that pupil who has approached him [Guru] with due courtesy, whose mind has become perfectly calm, and who has control over his senses, the wise teacher should truly impart the knowledge of Brahman through which he knows the Being, imperishable and real."⁹⁴

Thus, begins the intellectual preparation, the third stage of Brahmaajijnaasa, for the qualified student, at the feet of the Guru. The study of the scripture and the understanding its import and meaning takes place in three stages. The first stage is hearing (sravana), which, is followed by the state of reflection (manaana) and the final state of Brahmaajijnaasa is meditation (nidhdhyaasana). These three, namely, hearing, reflection and meditation, constitute the objective intellectual conditions for the removal of ignorance. Now we could proceed to an elaborate study of each of these stages of intellectual preparation.

In this section we would briefly clarify the meaning of sravana. We would also make an attempt to give an illustration with the help of which its meaning would be made clear.

Sravana at the same time is the mental activity, which helps the understanding of the upanishadic texts, leading to their only import, i.e., Brahman. In other words, sravana is not a mere hearing the truth about Brahman from the teacher or from the scriptures in a blind manner. But it involves an ascertaining on the part of the aspirant on what is heard. Thus, in sravana the student ascertains and establishes the true import of the scriptures, viz., `Brahman is one without a second'.⁹⁷ Without a genuine ascertaining sravana would be fruitless. This ascertaining is achieved by an examination of the texts through six tests or characteristic signs, namely, commencement and ending, repetition, uniqueness, result, eulogy and reason.⁹⁸ We could briefly clarify each of these texts. The first is commencement and ending. Commencement involves the presentation of the subject matter to be taught to the student, in sravana, at the beginning of a section, that the aspirant clearly comes to know the topic of his study. In the ending the same truth is restated not as a hypothesis but as a verified fact that the student knows about it with certainty. The second test, the repetition consists in frequent presentation of the subject matter in different parts of the section. It is aimed at helping the student to become more and more aware of the import of the subject matter by ascertaining each time it is repeated. The third is uniqueness of the subject matter. It consists in that the subject matter of a section is not available through any other source of knowledge, but only has to be understood in relation to the study of the scriptures. The fourth is the result. It is the utility of the subject matter of the section for the qualified student to move into the higher stages of Brahmaajijnaasa. In other words, the result consists in the utility of the subject matter, for its attainment. The fifth test, eulogy consists in praising the subject matter in different places of the section. It is aimed at instilling in the student a desire to hear attentively and inculcate in him its significance. The last test is reason, which consists in demonstrating the subject matter with rational arguments. It would help the qualified student to understand the thinking behind the subject matter and understand its import, which in the last analysis would lead to the right ascertaining of the meaning of the subject matter.⁹⁹ By the use of these six tests the student makes a deep effort to understand the import of the subject matter that he heard from the teacher or read from the Vedas. We move on, in the next section, to give an illustration of sravana, which would further clarify its meaning.

In the sixth chapter of Chaandogya Upanishad we have a typical illustration of this first stage, namely hearing. Here the aspirant is Sivetaketu the grandson of Aruna. His father instructs him by using the six texts of Sravana. The subject matter of this instruction is `Brahman, the one without a second'. The analysis of the six tests used in hearing, in relation to the text in question, would give us an idea about the practice f sravana.

The first test is commencement and ending. They refer to the presentation of the subject matter of the section at the beginning and at the end of the section. The subject matter is introduced in the beginning of the section in the words, "one without a second"¹⁰⁰ and again at the end in the words, "thus has all this world, that [Brahman] for its self."¹⁰¹ The second test is repetition, which consists in the frequent presentation of the subject matter again and again. For instance, the subject matter `Brahman is one without a second' is repeated nine times in this section, in different words, especially through the mahaavaakya `That art Thou'.¹⁰² The third is uniqueness, which means that the nature of the subject matter is such that it cannot be attained through any other means of knowledge than the study of the scriptures. In this section the subject matter `Brahman is one without a second' cannot be achieved in any other way except from the understanding of the meaning of the mahaavaakyas. This is indicated in the words: "Verily, those venerable men did not know this; for if they had known it, why would they have not told it to me? <sup>103</sup> The implication of this statement is that `the knowledge of Brahman, without a second' can be achieved only from the scriptures. The fourth test, the result, is the usefulness of the subject matter of the section. In this section the realization that Brahman is one without a second, brings about self-knowledge to the seeker. In other words, the utility of the knowledge of Brahman one without a second is its attainment.¹⁰⁴ The fifth, eulogy, consists in praising the subject matter at different places of the section. It is found in this section in the words, "Have you ever asked for, that instruction by which one hears what has not been heard; one thinks what has not been known; one has spoken in praise of Brahman without a second".¹⁰⁵ Finally reason, which consists in demonstrating the subject matter of the section. In this section we have the demonstration of `Brahman one without a second' in the words: "As by a lump of clay, all that is made of clay is known . . . every modification being an effect of speech, a mode and the clay is the only reality."<sup>106</sup> In other words, just as in knowing a lump of clay, we can know the nature of all things made of clay, so also in knowing that Brahman is one without a second, the nature of everything in the world is known, for Brahman is the ground of everything. The examples of a nugget of gold and a pair of nail scissors are also used to demonstrate the truth of `Brahman is one without a second', in the same fashion as the lump of clay.¹⁰⁷ In this manner three reasons are furnished to demonstrate the subject matter of the section, viz., `Brahman is one without a second'. Thus, the aspirant hearing the explanation of the mahaavaakya from the teacher, become familiar with its import and ascertains its meaning.

In the last section we clarified the meaning of sravana and how it is used to help the qualified student to ascertain the true import of the mahaavaakyas. In this section, we will elaborate the second stage of the intellectual preparation, viz., reflection (manaana). We do this by analyzing its meaning and method with the help of illustrations.

The Keena Upanishad Bhaashya speaks about the second intellectual condition required for the removal of ignorance, viz., manaana, as follows:

This passage clearly shows the nature and function of manaana. It is a mental activity, which consists in the employment of favorable arguments for the removal of the apparent contradictions that might arise during the study of the scripture against other means of valid knowledge. The truth pointed out by the teacher is difficult to grasp and seems to contradict the ordinary perception and knowledge obtained from the pramaanas other than the scripture. Thus, it is very important that the aspirant strengthen his conviction at this stage, by looking for rational basis for the teaching received from the teacher in sravana. Prof. Ramamurthi clearly points out the role of manaana as follows: "The purpose of it [manaana] is to fortify one's conviction of the truth from the scripture and to rid oneself of all doubts. . . . Another important function of reflection is to make one comprehend the real meaning of the scriptural statements by consistently interpreting them so that the apparent inconsistencies are resolved."¹⁰⁹

But, though at this stage of reflection, one looks for arguments and reasons to justify the knowledge of Brahman received in sravana, still the arguments and reasons sought to strengthen one's conviction must not be contradictory to the teaching of the Upanishads. For, the scriptural authority is absolute, and reason is subservient to revelation, especially with regard to the knowledge of Brahman. Therefore, for Shankara, manaana is that continuous reflections performed with the aid of reasoning and that are subservient to the teaching of the Upanishads, upon the secondless reality of Brahman, that is known through sravana.¹¹⁰

Having clarified the meaning of manaana, we could proceed to analyze the negative method used by the aspirant during the state of reflection, in order to de-superimpose phenomenal qualities from Brahman.

At the stage of manaana, the aspirant makes use of the negative method of Advaita Vedaanta, viz., apavaada, more than ever before. Apavaada consists in the elimination of what some is not, in order that one may attain the truth about that particular thing. In other words, it is "the elimination of the falsely superimposed attributes (vivartha) in order to discover the true nature of a thing."¹¹¹ The rope appears as a snake in an illusion. By negating the illusory snake the true nature of the rope is perceived. By negating the attributes of the illusory water in the mirage one discovers the true nature of the desert. By negating the illusory silver that we obtain the true nature of shells scattered on the beach. This ability to distinguish between the real and the unreal, Shankara calls discrimination. It is this discriminating ability that helps us to understand the true nature of things. It is much the same with our knowledge of Brahman. By negating, through discrimination, the attributes of the non-self, one attains the true nature of Aatman and by negating the world of names and forms one attains the knowledge of Brahman, the absolute reality.¹¹²

Negation, then, consists in the refutation of the knowledge established by the method of superimposition (adhyaropa). In the scriptures we find many statements about the ultimate reality, expressed in terms of negation. "That which is invisible (adneesya), ungraspable (agranya), without family (agootra), without caste (avarna), without sight or hearing (acaksisrotra), without hand or foot (apanipaada), immortal (nitya) . . . imperishable(avyaaya)"¹¹³ is Brahman. "The self is that which has been desired as neither, this nor that."¹¹⁴ "It (Brahman) is imperishable . . ., undecaying . . ., unattached . . ., unsettled. It never feels pain, never suffers injury, it is transcendent."¹¹⁵ These passages from the scripture witness to the fact that these negated qualities like birth, death, hunger, thirst, pain and pleasure never did belong to the absolute Brahman, even though these were attributes given to Brahman, by one in the state of ignorance. Neither do these superimposed qualities affect the ultimate reality in any way. Thus, the "via negativa of Advaita Vedaanta . . . safeguards the unqualified oneness of the state of being called Brahman."¹¹⁶

Brihadaaranyaka Upanishads speaks of Brahman with words `neti neti' (not so, not so).<sup>117</sup> In fact this statement does not make us perceive something direct as the statement `this is a book' make us perceive a book. Therefore, the statement `neti neti' does not tell us anything positive about the nature of Brahman. But, in fact, it is the most proper way of describing Brahman since it is devoid of all qualities. The term `neti' consists of two words, namely, `ne' which means `not' and `iti' which means `so'. The word `iti' indicates the presence of something or a quality right here, which is negated by the word `ne'. Thus, `iti' used with `ne' points to something that is negated. The repetition of `neti' twice covers all possible predications that are to be eliminated.<sup>118</sup> The statement `neti neti' only denies the attributes superimposed on Brahman, but not the Brahman, for such denial of both Brahman and the qualities superimposed on Brahman would lead to pure void (suunya) and to Nihilism (Suunyavaada). For Shankara says, "know . . . that the Sruti `not large' etc. is meant to negate the false superimposition (of largeness, smallness, etc., on the self) as it would be description of void if it were meant to negate those qualities from one other than the self."<sup>119</sup> Just as the denial of the illusion of the snake leaves us with the reality of the rope, so too the denial of the qualities superimposed on Brahman reveals Brahman in its entirety. For according to Shankara `neti neti' denies not absolutely everything, but everything except Brahman.¹²⁰

At the same time the use of `neti neti' before a descriptive sentence does not necessarily mean that the particular descriptive sentence in question is false, but rather it only means that the sentence is not applicable or not appropriate in the case of Brahman. Consequently what this approach has done is to have generated a third kind of connotation which one can make of descriptions. No longer are descriptions either true or false; some of them may be a third kind of evaluation, namely, what had been termed `inappropriate' or `inapplicable'.¹²¹

Some times in scriptural passages we find twofold negation.¹²² In statements like Brahman is "not known and beyond unknown"¹²³ and "neither gross nor subtle"¹²⁴ what is denied is not only one attribute but also its opposite. Shankara comments on the statement, which describes Brahman as "neither sat (existent) nor asat (non-existent)"¹²⁵ as follows. He says "since the Knowable (Brahman / Aatman) is beyond the reach of the senses . . . it cannot be . . . an object of consciousness accompanied with the idea of either existence or of non-existence, and therefore, not said to be sat or asat."¹²⁶ It is clear from this comment of Shankara that in all such negations, the notion of sat or asat are understood form the vyayahaara, and not paramaartha point of view. From the supreme point of view of absolute knowledge, the term `sat' applies only to Brahman. But it is quite natural that one understands, in the course of Brahmaajijnaasa, such terms as `sat' or`asat' in the ordinary meaning, they have for those who are still immersed in ignorance. In that case what the aspirant understands by `sat' primarily is the object of senses, which should be negated with respect to Brahman.¹²⁷ Thus, the negative method completely does away with all false attribution of Brahman, and thereby paves the way for true knowledge.

Now that we have analyzed the meaning of negative method (apavaada) used by the aspirant in the stage of manaana, we could go on to give a few illustrations of this method and de-superimpose the superimposed phenomenal qualities on Brahman in the next section.

Here, we attempt at two illustrations, in which the negative method is used to de-superimpose Brahman, the universal spirit and Aatman the inner spirit in man. The twofold de-superimposition process clearly points to the identity between the universal spirit and the inner self. These illustrations also would give us an understanding of what an aspirant is expected to do in the state of manaana, viz., that he is called to form right convictions about the true nature of Brahman and Aatman by way of de-superimposition.

We find the first illustration in the Brihadaaranyaka Upanishad. It is a regress to Brahman by way of negation. Gaargii, the daughter of Vacaknavii questions Yaajnavalkya regarding the nature of Brahman. She begins from her experience of the phenomenal world, and moves towards Brahman, and at each stage Yaajnavalkya uses negative method to counter her question. Her question proceeds as follows. Since the world is woven on water, on what the water woven? Yaajnavalkya replies that it is on the wind that the water is woven. She asks further: `On what the wind is woven?' to which the reply given is that the wind is woven by the atmosphere worlds. To her question `on what the atmosphere worlds woven?' Yaajnavalkya replies that they are woven by the worlds of the Gandharvas. To her plea `on what the worlds of the Gandharvas woven?' he answers that they are woven by the worlds of the sun. `On what the worlds of the sun woven? She asks and the reply is that the worlds of the sun are woven by the worlds of the moon. She questions him further saying `on what the worlds of the moon woven?' and he replies that they are woven by the worlds of the stars. To her inquiry `on what the worlds of the stars woven?' Yaajnavalkya replies that they are woven by the worlds of gods. She questions him again `on what the worlds of gods woven?' and he satisfies her curiosity by saying that the worlds of the gods are woven in the worlds of Indra. To her question `on what the worlds of Indra woven?' he says that they are woven on the worlds of Prajaapathi. Again she asks `on what the worlds of Prajaapathi woven?' and he replies that the worlds of Prajaapathi are woven in the worlds of Brahman. Gaargii persists in her questioning and asks `on what the worlds of Brahman woven? Yaajnavalkya replies, "Gaargii, do not question too much, lest your head fall off. In truth you are questioning too much about a divinity about which further questions cannot be asked. Gaargii do not over-question."¹²⁸ Thus, Yaajnavalkya using the method of negation moves towards Brahman eliminating all adjuncts of limitation (upaadhi) starting from the lowest.

The second illustration of negative method is given in Sadaananda Yogindra's book Vedaantasaara.¹²⁹ Here the author attempts to de-superimpose the superimposed inner self (Aatman), by bringing together different views held regarding the nature of the self. Each succeeding view is more refined than the preceding one as the former attempts to identify the self with higher faculties, while the latter identifies the self with lower faculties. In setting forth each of these views the author presents the threefold proofs, viz., the scriptural evidence, inference and direct perception, given by the respective schools to justify its view of the self. At the end the author refutes all these fallacious views and sets forth the true nature of Aatman as taught by Vedaanta.

The first view represents the view of the most deluded common man, who identifies his self with an extraneous object like his son. The three reasons given in justification for this false identification are the following. The scriptural statement `Verily the self is born as the son", the inferential fact that one loves one's son as one's own self and the experiential fact that one feels oneself prosperous or ruined according to one's son fares well or ill in life. This view of the self cannot be justified because one's self can never be his son, even though the son is very dear to oneself.¹³⁰

Four different schools of Indian Materialism (Chaarvaakas) propound the next four views. The first school holds that the self is the physical body. They quote the Sruti statement "Man is constituted of the essence of food" as the scriptural evidence. From the fact that a person saves himself from a burning house, even leaving his son behind, they point out that a person's self is his body, which he wishes to save. The perceptual experience of oneself as `I am thin', `I am short', etc. also helps one to identify oneself with one's body. The second school of Materialism refutes the contention of the former school that body is the self by arguing that body become inert and inactive when sense organs cease to function. Therefore, for them the sense organs is the self. The quote the scriptural passage `The sense organs went to their father prajaapathi and said . . ." , to justify their point of view. They infer that senses are the self from the fact that the movement of the body ceases to exist when sense organs cease to work. One's perceptual experience that `I am blind of one eye' and `I am deaf' clearly points to the fact that one's self is the sense organs.<sup>131</sup> The third school argues against the previous school by saying that the activities of the senses are dependent on the vital force (praana). Therefore, for them vital force is the self. They give the scriptural passage "Different from and more internal than this (the physical body) is the self, which consists in vital force", to substantiate their view. From the fact that the cessation of the vital force leads to the cessation of activity of the sense organs, they infer that vital force is the self. The perceptual evidence that `I am hungry' and `I am thirsty' which are associated with vital force, also indicate that the activity of the body and the senses depend on the vital force, and so it is identical with the self. <sup>132</sup> The proponents of the fourth school of Materialism rebut the arguments of the third school on the ground that the activity of the vital force is controlled by the activity of the mind (manas). Thus for them mind is identical with the self. The Sruti passage they use to support their claim is that which says: "Different from and more internal than this (which consists of the vital force) is the self which consists of the mind." From the fact that vital force ceases to exist when the mind stops functioning they conclude that the mind is the self. Besides, the perceptual experience of `I am considering the pros and corns', also indicate that the mind, which has the capacity for weighing over the subject, is identical with the self.¹³³

The Buddhist Idealists (Yogaachaaras) contradict the view of the last school of Materialism. Since they consider the mind as a mere instrument of pleasure and pain, and that weighs the pros and corns, it needs an agent to act. This agent that controls the mind and acts on its behalf is the intellect (buddhi). Thus, for the Buddhist Idealists, the intellect, the agent of activity is the self. The scriptural passage they use to support their view is the following: "Different from and more internal than this is the self, which consists of consciousness." From the fact that mind as an instrument of judging becomes powerless at the absence of the agent intellect, they infer that buddhi is the self. Besides, the perceptual knowledge expressed in statements, such as `I am the agent' and `I am the enjoyer', also indicate that the intellect is the self.¹³⁴

The exponents of Miimaamsa schools of Praabhaakara and Kumaarila Bhatta held the next two views regarding the nature of the self. The Praabhaakaras refute the view of the Yogaachaaras saying that the intellect cannot be the self, as in the state of deep sleep the intellect and all other faculties merge in ignorance. Thus, for the Praabhaakaras the ignorance, that characterizes the state of deep sleep, is the self. They substantiate this view with the help of the scriptural passage, "Different from and more internal than this [intellect] is the self which consists in bliss." From the fact that in deep sleep the body, the vital forces, the mind and the intellect merges in ignorance, they infer that ignorance is the self. The perceptual experience of one as `I am ignorant' and `I am devoid of knowledge' clearly points to the fact ignorance is the self. Thus for Praabhaakaras, as there is no consciousness in the state of deep sleep, it follows that the state of ignorance is the self. ¹³⁵ The Bhattas deny the view of the Praabhaakaras, viz., the ignorance is the self, on the ground that the in the state of deep sleep a person contains elements of both consciousness and unconsciousness. Therefore, they claim that consciousness associated with ignorance is the self. Thus, for them, self is associated with knowledge and ignorance, consciousness and unconsciousness. They quote the scriptural statement "During dreamless sleep the Aatman is undifferentiated consciousness", to substantiate their view. They also infer this truth from the fact that both consciousness and unconsciousness are present in the state of dreamless sleep. They explain this point as follows. Unless a man retains consciousness in the state of deep sleep, he cannot say on waking that he had slept well, because in deep sleep sense organs do not function and this knowledge that he had slept well cannot come from sense organs. Therefore the self must possess consciousness as an inherent quality. At the same time there is also unconsciousness in the state of deep sleep, as one who goes through the experience of deep sleep fully unaware of what had happened during the period of sleep. Thus the Bhattas infer that the self is consciousness associated with ignorance. The perceptual experiences of `I had a sound sleep' and `I did not know anything then, i.e., at the time of sleep' also indicate that consciousness associated with ignorance is the self.¹³⁶

The Maadhyamika school of Buddhism (Suunyavaadins), interpreting the sayings of Buddha literally maintain that void is the self. They refute the Bhatta view, by saying that the self is neither consciousness, nor unconsciousness, but non-existence. They state the scriptural statement "In the beginning there was non-existence", in favor of their philosophical point. From the fact that there is an absence of everything in the state of deep sleep, they infer that there is nothing called self and that the reality is void. They prove this point also from the perceptual experience of a man who has just awakened from deep sleep, which makes him say that `during the dreamless sleep I was non-existent'.¹³⁷

All these eight different views of the self, present the self as one's son, one's body, one's vital force, one's mind, one's intellect, ignorance, consciousness associated with ignorance and non-existence. Each of these successive views negates the former by identifying the self with something higher than the previous knowledge of the self. So far eight fold negations have been made. The author of the book of Vedaantasaara states that all these negations have moved in the right direction, but they have not taken us to the true nature of the self. Having said this he makes an attempt to show the true nature of the self, by rebutting the arguments of these various schools.¹³⁸ To quote him:

This passage quoted from Vedaantasaara, clearly states the true nature of Aatman, by way of the method of negation, in the process giving us a clear illustration of negation as a method to attain the knowledge of the absolute reality.

Thus, in the state of manaana the aspirant de-superimposes, by way of negation, the phenomenal reality from Brahman and Aatman, and understands the full import of the Vedaantic statements like `That art Thou', in their indirect and implicit meaning. Manaana, therefore, logically establishes the truth of identity, by critical reflection and discourse.¹⁴⁰ At the end of the stage of reflection all ignorance is removed, the aspirant is intellectually convinced of the identity of Brahman with Aatman, and thus, moves towards the next stage, viz., the practice of meditation.

In this section we will briefly analyze the meaning and types of meditation. Besides, we will make an attempt to explain the practice of meditation, by aspirant's concentration on the mahaavaakyas and the eternal syllable `Aum'.

The final stage leading to the complete removal of ignorance and thus, to the direct realization of the self is meditation (nididhyaasana). If an aspirant, having heard the teacher, is successful in his reflection and is intellectually convinced of his identity with Brahman, then he is ready to strive for the direct realization or Brahmaanubhava. Nididhyaasana is a mental activity consisting in withdrawing the mind from all other things and concentrating it on Brahman.¹⁴¹ It "strikes deep the Vedaantic wisdom into our heart. It eradicates the innate confusion of the body with the soul."¹⁴² Meditation is not a concentration of oneself on Brahman, as an external of separate entity. It is an activity of the mind "in which the mind is turned completely inward, and is firmly. fixed on the inner self and its identity with Brahman till one's finitude and individuality is dissolved."¹⁴³ 

Thus, "meditation is the stream of ideas of the same kind as those of Brahman, the one without a second, to the exclusion of such ideas as those of body"¹⁴⁴ and all other faculties related to the physical, psychical and intellectual dimensions of an individual. Hence, meditation involves a continuous and unbroken thought on Brahman, that flows like a line of flowing oil,¹⁴⁵ and the exclusion of all thoughts. For Shankara, therefore, meditation consists in "remaining independent of everything as a result of the unassailable thought `I am verily Brahman' . . . and [which] is productive of supreme bliss."¹⁴⁶ Now that we have analyzed the meaning of meditation, we could talk about its different types in the next section.

Nididhyaasana has two forms, viz., samprajnaat-samaapatti and asamprajnaat-samaapatti. Samprajnaat-samaapatti is a form of meditation in which the aspirant experiences modifications of consciousness while meditating on the mahaavaakyas. In this type of meditation there are two stages. The initial stage is characterized by the knowledge of the modification of mental consciousness that originated while meditating on the Vedaantic statements. The aspirant, therefore, is conscious of himself, the meditator and the witness of the modification that has taken place in the consciousness, and of the modification created by the meditation on the scriptural axiom at that particular moment. The later stage of samprajnaat-samaapatti is free from all thoughts regarding the origin of the modification that is produced in the consciousness, as the result of meditation on the mahaavaakya. Since meditation is intense at this stage, the temporal and spatial marks of modifications are not available to the consciousness of the meditator. The aspirant is only aware of himself as the witness and the modifications produced by his meditation on the Vedaantic aphorisms.¹⁴⁷

Asamprajnaat-samaapatti is a state of meditation, in which the consciousness of the aspirant practicing meditation is not characterized by any modifications. In it, there is no sense of duality as all modifications produced by the meditation, on the scriptural axiom, have ceased to exist. As there is no subject-object distinction in this meditation, the Aatman becomes the subject and object of the meditation as the identity without any modifications is arrived at as the result of asamprajnaat-samaapatti.¹⁴⁸ 

We have looked into the meaning and types of meditation in the last two sections. In the next section, we move on to consider the practice of meditation with the help of the four mahaavaakyas and the eternal syllable `Aum'.

In the states of sravana and manaana the aspirant studies the scriptures, analyses the meaning of the Vedaantic aphorisms and discriminates the perishable body, mind, intellect and plurality of the world from the imperishable self. Having done this, the aspirant negates the perishable world and asserts the imperishable self as real, repeatedly suggesting to himself that "I am supreme Brahman".¹⁴⁹ The latter task of assertion is done by the practice of meditation, which takes the aspirant to experience the fundamental identity of Aatman and Brahman. The practice of meditation is facilitated by the aspirant's focus on the four mahaavaakyas and the eternal syllable `Aum, while meditating.

The aspirant's practice of meditation on the mahaavaakyas must begin with the lakshana vaakya (statement of definition), viz., `Prajnaanam Brahmaa' (`Consciousness is Brahman'). This aphorism fixes the mind of the meditator on the thought that consciousness in the individual (Aatman) and the consciousness underlying the entire universe (Brahman) are one and the same. In other words, meditating on this aphorism the aspirant recognizes existentially that the same consciousness is the substratum of the microcosm and the macrocosm. Thus, the meditation on the statement `Consciousness if Brahman' envelops the depth of the aspirant with the experience that the consciousness ever remains the one homogeneous reality whether it be in the cosmos or in the individual. With the deep awareness of the oneness of the ultimate reality, the aspirant moves on to the meditation of the upadeesha vaakya (statement of advice), viz., `Tat Tvam Asi (`That art Thou'). It asserts that the one ultimate reality (That) is the pure self (Thou) that is the core of one's personality that lies beyond the five sheaths (koshas) of matter. In this manner the meditation on the second mahaavaakya makes the aspirant experience the oneness of the infinite Brahman and Aatman within him. Having convinced that the supreme reality is nothing but his own self, the aspirant moves on to the meditation of the abyhaasa vaakya (statement of practice), viz., `Ayamaatama Brahmaa' (`This Self is Brahman). The meditation on this practical formula makes the aspirant realize Aatman, which activates him is the same Brahman, who vitalizes the entire universe. Thus, the aspirant discovers the identity between the self and the all-pervading Brahman. The conviction arrived at by the meditation on the third mahaavaakya makes the aspirant experience the truth of anubhava vaakya (statement of experience), viz., `Aham Brahmaasmi' (`I am Brahman'). This statement is a pronouncement of the man of realization. He knows now experientially that he is the all-pervading Brahman and that all the duality is totally removed. The `I' referred to in the fourth mahaavaakya is different from the `I' experienced in the waking state, dream state and the state of deep sleep. The `I' of the anubhava vaakya is the supreme self, identical with Brahman. In this manner the practice of meditation facilitated by the mahaavaakyas lead to self-realization.¹⁵⁰

Besides meditating on the mahaavaakyas, the aspirant must attempt to focus his attention on the eternal syllable `Aum', while practicing meditation. The meditation on `Aum' would remove all traces of ignorance and lead the aspirant to the gates of true knowledge. Maanduukya Upanishad refers to the significance of the eternal syllable `Aum' as follows: "Aum, this syllable is all this. . . . All that is past, the present and the future, all this is only the syllable`Aum'. And whatever else there is beyond the three fold time, that too is the only syllable `Aum'."<sup>151</sup> This passage from the Maanduukya Upanishad clearly states that `Aum' refers to both the manifested and the unmanifested Brahman.

The ultimate and unmanifested Brahman, the pure consciousness, though one in itself, by the activity of cosmic and individual maayaa, in the temporal order appears as Viraat, Hirayanagarbha and Iishvara in the macrocosm; and Vishva, Taijasa and Praajna in the microcosm.¹⁵² Thus, `Aum' refers to the manifested Brahman conditioned by the three fold states both in the macrocosm and the microcosm. Therefore, the three sound elements of the syllable `Aum' corresponds to and signifies Brahman conditioned by the three bodies (viz., the gross, subtle and causal bodies) and manifesting in the three states (viz., the waking state, the dream-state and the deep sleep state). So Shankara maintains that the sound `A' of the syllable `Aum' signifies Viraat in the macrocosm and Vishva in the microcosm; the sound `U' of the syllable `Aum' represents Hirayanagarbha and Taijasa; and the sound `M' of the syllable `Aum' indicates the Iishvara and Praajna.¹⁵³ In meditation the aspirant attempts to inculcate the corresponding relationship between different sound of the syllable `Aum' and the respective pairs of macrocosmic and microcosmic realms. In doing so, he is encouraged to dismiss consciously the differences between Viraat and Vishva, Hirayanagarbha and Taijasa, and Iishvara and Praajna, and apprehend these pairs as identical.<sup>154</sup> To quote Sureshvaraachaarya on this point: "The three forms, Vishva, Taijasa and Praajna must be contemplated as identical with Viraat, Suutraatmaa [Hirayanagarbha] and Akshara [Iishvara] respectively, so that the non-existence of the difference of those entities may be established."<sup>155</sup> Thus the three individual forms of consciousness become identical with the three collective forms of consciousness, and so only the latter remains in place of the six.<sup>156</sup> When a seeker practices this identification of the macrocosmic and microcosmic states, by way of meditation he would experience, the three sounds of the syllable `Aum', viz., `A', `U' and `M', as signifying the three phases of the one integral spirit, i.e., Brahman.¹⁵⁷ Thus, the whole universe would be seen as the ultimate reality, in relation to the waking consciousness, dream consciousness and deep-sleep consciousness conditioned by the gross body, the subtle body and causal body respectively.¹⁵⁸ 

Even at this stage the aspirant of self-realization has two fold problems, viz., a philosophical and a spiritual. The philosophical problem consists in understanding the ultimate Brahman as transcending the conditions in which it is seemingly embodied. The spiritual problem is to raise oneself from the limiting conditions of the gross body, the subtle body and the causal body and to realize one's identity with the ultimate Brahman. In order to overcome these two problems and arrive at the identity experience, the aspirant must learn to move, both intellectually and spiritually, from the entanglements with the different bodies in different states of existence. This involves an ascending movement form the gross body in the waking level to the level of subtle body in the dream level and from the dream level to the deep-sleep level of the causal body. Constant meditation on the different sounds of the syllable `Aum', viz., `A',`U' and `M', would bring about this upward movement towards the realization of Brahman.¹⁵⁹

The first sound that is constitutive of `Aum', `A' represents the gross point of view of reality. Philosophically it refers to the naïve realism and the pluralism of common sense. The aspirant must move from this pluralistic perspective of reality and from entanglement with the gross things that characterize his life in the waking state. He must move towards the level of thought that is marked by subtle bodies that are characteristic of dream state. This state is represented by the sound `U' of `Aum'. Philosophically the thought belongs to this level is dynamic idealism, which sees the universe as the projection of the spirit, just as the dream state is the projection of the mind. Thus, one realizes at this state that the phenomenal reality is the manifestation of Brahman, by the instrumentality of maayaa. This state is as unreal as the waking state. When an aspirant attains maturity in this level, he must move onto the third level of the state of deep sleep that is characterized by causal body and ignorance. This state is represented by the final sound of `Aum', viz., the `M'. The philosophy of state of deep sleep is agnosticism, as in this state ignorance the seed of phenomenal existence is present in a striking manner. As an aspirant meditates on the `M' sound of `Aum', he must break the agnosticism of the deep sleep state and experience the totality of the eternal syllable `Aum', which is fundamentally and essentially the unmanifest Brahman. Thus, meditating on the three sounds of the syllable `Aum', the aspirant gradually recognizes the unreality of the waking state with the gross body, the dream-state with the subtle body and the deep sleep-state with the causal body. In this manner, he wakes up to the infinite reality of his spiritual essence in the experience of the eternal syllable `Aum'. Moving out of the three stages of ignorance, the aspirant achieves absolute illumination, which makes him experience his divine essence as the absolute Brahman in the `stateless' eternity.¹⁶⁰ Shankara in his work Panchiikaranam sums up the experience of the aspirant attaining self-realization by meditation on the eternal syllable `Aum' as follows:

Sureshvaraachaarya commenting on this passage from Shankara's Panchiikaranam, says as follows:

Such meditation on the eternal syllable `Aum', in which the aspirant dissolves and reduces the lower on the higher and finally everything in Brahman, the absolute self is traditionally known as Lai Upaasana or Ahangrah Upaasana.¹⁶³ Along with the meditation on the mahaavaakyas the Lai Upaasana is an excellent way of practicing meditation, which would lead to the dawn of knowledge, when the seeker experiences identity between the Brahman and the Aatman.

Thus, by repeated exercise of meditation one moves to greater depth of absolute consciousness. This consciousness of identity with the absolute Brahman removes all the effects of ignorance. By focusing more on the inner self, by way of meditation the aspirant makes the inward journey, until he experiences his absolute identity with Brahman.

In the last two sections of this chapter, we considered the nature and methods of Brahmaajijnaasa and the various stages of Shankara's jnaana path to self-realization. The preparations the aspirant makes in the physical, moral and intellectual levels, helps him focus more on the inner nature, wherein he finds the ultimate source of his existence. The end of this journey is the attainment of release (Samaadhi). In this section, we make an attempt to elaborate the nature of the state of Samaadhi and its goal, viz., the emergence of the realized man (Brahmajnaani)

In this section, we make an attempt to analyze the meaning of the state of release. Besides, we would briefly mention the different types of Samaadhi and the obstacles the seeker has to overcome in order to attain this state, the final goal of human existence.

The realization of one's absorption in or identity with Brahman is release (Samaadhi). It is the true liberation and the ultimate end of the seeker. This state of self-realization is of the same nature of Brahman. Therefore, Brahman and Samaadhi are identical. Liberation is nothing else, but becoming one with Brahman. In the liberated state the seeker knows that he is Brahman. As a result, all duality and multiplicity disappear. One knows now that all, including his self is Brahman. In Samaadhi, nothing new is attained in the aspirant, for he only realizes what he is from all eternity.¹⁶⁴

Speaking of the state of release Shankara says: "The complete forgetfulness of all thought, by first making it changeless and then identifying it with Brahman is called Samaadhi, known also as knowledge."¹⁶⁵ By this statement Shankara does not say that release is a state of unconsciousness. Even though all objective thoughts are absent in Samaadhi, the pure consciousness is always there. To deny the presence of consciousness at this state is an impossibility, as it is the very self of the person, who denies it. Since the very attempt to deny the presence of the consciousness at the state of release would affirm the reality of consciousness, this state can be rightly called knowledge.¹⁶⁶ From what we have said, it is clear that Samaadhi is different from the state of deep sleep. It is true that mental states or object-thoughts do not appear both in Samaadhi and in deep sleep. But the fundamental difference between the two consists in that in Samaadhi the mental state exists having taken the form of Brahman, while in deep sleep the mental state is totally absent, as it has merged with ignorance which alone remains. Thus, the state of release is different from and essentially superior to the state of deep sleep.¹⁶⁷

According to Shankara, the realization of Samaadhi takes place in three stages of consciousness. The first stage is asmbhaava-bhaavana. It consists in the removal of thought of non-existence of Br