INTRODUCTION

Sofia, Bulgaria

Nov. 12-15, 1998

            This volume reflects the work of the Council for Research in Values and Philosophy (RVP): (a) in identifying an issue of concern for social life, namely, the relation between Islamic and Christian cultures; (b) in bringing together the competencies in philosophy and related human sciences needed to study professionally the issue, for it brings together scholars not only from Eastern Europe (which is the focus of the study) but from Africa and America, from Central and South Asia and even from the far reach of New Zealand; and (c) this with the prospect of the publication of this work and other draft volumes from the region which also were discussed on that occasion.

          The theme, “Islamic and Christian Cultures: Conflict or Dialogue,” is an issue of vital and urgent importance, in a time of considerable and growing instability. It took place where the conflict not only is thoroughly engaged, but even constituted by the meeting of the cultures; yet it is a peaceful place where balanced reflection is possible. This indeed is perhaps the greatest tribute to the Bulgarian people.

          In approaching this topic it was the interest of the conference's Chairperson, Plamen Makariev, that the issue be treated not only in theory, but also in terms of the real deficiencies in perception, theory and practices. As stated in his description of the theme, theocratic research into the texts and history of Islam shows the influence of religion on science, art, economy and everyday life to be one of tolerance and pluralism. Concretely, however, there is a common perception from one point of view that Islam is past-oriented, conservative and unproductive, whereas the West is future-oriented, constructive, open and developing. This view undoubtedly is matched by an equally common and opposing perception from the other point of view that the West is unfaithful and prejudiced, materialist and pragmatic, whereas Islam is faithful and spiritual, and for this is persecuted. Plamen Makariev asks, Granted that Islam is so perceived, what changes or developments are possible and how can the concrete, public effect of mutual understanding and cooperation be achieved?

            This is a great challenge. Are progress and achievement possible after so long a time? It would seem so because this is a time of great change on both sides. On the one hand, there is currently a global opening, both horizontally across the world and vertically into the deep, interior reaches of persons and communities and into the significance of culture in general and hence of other cultures and faiths. On the other hand, developments, e.g., in Iran, indicate that whereas the people took a step back from development which appeared to be leading away from faith, there is today a recognition that faith alone will not suffice and that a proper autonomy and relation of religious and political orders needs to be stabilized. People speak of "grassroots" and look forward to structures as yet undefined that are faith-inspired. These new developments from both directions open the way for progress. It is toward this goal that the present conference is directed.

          If we look concretely into the opportunities which are now open for progress in the relation between Islamic and Christian cultures and, indeed, in the perceptions of each toward the other, we find such a great and decisive contrast between the beginning of modernity and the present that we appear now to be at the end of a great, four-hundred-year "modern" period and in the midst of a truly epochal, indeed, millennial change.

          What was exceptional about that time four centuries ago was its strong rejection of tradition. Bacon called for the destruction of the "idols" which were the experience of humankind throughout the ages; Descartes put all under doubt; Locke called for a mind like a tabula rasa from which all was erased. All was to be discovered afresh, however, in reality not all was to be taken into account, but only what could be stated in terms of ideas for Descartes or senses for Locke. This would, henceforth, be considered the sole honest situation for scientific and public discourse. It was a great experiment and would have been truly fascinating had it been carried out in a laboratory. Indeed, it was the aim of Locke to apply the methods more broadly to human life, an aim achieved in the 20th century by John Dewey.

          In most recent times this is reflected in John Rawls' Political Liberalism. Rawls' position reflects the particular Protestant form of Christian theology so formative in the period of John Locke, namely, that human nature was corrupted in the fall and, hence, that reason had no role in faith. As a result, the various faiths stood isolated from each other, and reason could play no role in their relation.

          As a result, in order to have social interaction it was necessary to remove all faiths or integrating visions of life from the public sphere and to place them behind a so-called “veil of ignorance.” Religion and its sense of human brotherhood could be allowed only in the private sphere; the public sphere must be rigorously secular in which people were atomic individuals. Any sense of basic relatedness or community, whether ethnic or cultural, was seen as subversive and retrogressive to human freedom. Hence, as noted above, Islamic culture was seen as past-oriented, conservative and unproductive.

          This theological fundamentalism, reordering all of life along the theological interpretation of one sector of Christianity was politically imposed. As an ideology, it not only parallels that of the capitalist free market, but is part of its necessary conditions, i.e., the removal of anything that would complicate making decisions in exclusively economic terms.

          From this point of view, not only Islamic, but any faith commitment regarding public life is seen as retrogressive, traditionalist and unproductive, and hence as an untrustworthy, if not a dangerous partner in public life. Thus, the military repression of the democratic will of the people in Turkey is applauded, for it is an effort to impose a secular view of society. Despite liberal pretenses, ideology counts more than freedom.

            There are reasons to think, however, that we are now at a point of change, both socially and philosophically. Socially, the Cold War would appear to have been the logical denouement of the process of ideas, taken by the clever competencies of technical reason to their logical extreme. The logic of community, first distinguishing and then suppressing all individuality imploded in 1989 through lack of sufficient creative initiative to provide for itself. Ten years later the ideology of the atomistic individualism of the free market collapsed when globalized, monetary transfers made it possible to destroy national and even regional economies. And last, it came to be recognized that it could be reasonable for a country to put restrictions on the flow of funds.  This volume would hope to respond to the need to rebuild.

            Within this context, the present volume raises the question of whether conflict is inevitable between the Islamic and Christian cultures or if dialogue is a possibility and a rational alternative.  The work of fourteen authors on this subject has been categorized into three divisions.

            In Part 1, the religious traditions of Islam and Christianity are explored in their historical and current contexts.  In Chapter 1, “The Sense of the Past in the New Testament and the Qur’an,” Gregory Dawes compares Christianity, Islam and Mormonism to facilitate understanding by analyzing their different approaches to their common religious past. Comprehension of the past then becomes an interpretive device to explain the present. 

            George F. McLean in “The Relation between Islamic and Christian Cultures,” Chapter 2, articulates the challenge of this millenium:  how to unite in a cooperative balance both increasing global unity and augmented appreciation for cultural diversity arising from differing religious traditions.  Through analysis of relations between the human and the Divine, between faith and reason and between religions, McLean explores theoretical and actual methods of cooperation.

            As a prerequisite to avoiding religious conflict, Milko Youroukov in Chapter 3, entitled “Dialogue between Religious Traditions as a Barrier against Cases of Extreme Religious Fundamentalism,” contextualizes dialogue as between cultures with religion nestled within culture.  Hereby, interreligious dialogue can occur and can dispel extreme religious fundamentalism, seen as conflictual.

            In “Islam, Christianity and Unbelievers:  Ways of Mutuality,” Alexander Andonov examines in Chapter 4 the universal ontological reality of trans-cultural values as ends in themselves.  Religion is perceived to be the expression of means to these ends.  Andonov continues his reflection by exploring the extent to which a religion honors this ontological reality.

            Burhanettin Tatar pronounces that a prerequisite for dialogue is the difference between cultures and religions in Chapter 5, entitled “The Problem of Textual Authority in the Context of Intercultural Dialogue.”  Upon this foundation, Tatar works through the examination of Quranic textual authority by locating its meaning between the writings and historical interpretations.

            In Part 2, Dialogue between Cultures in Religious and Secular Contexts, the perceptions of Islamic society by nonMuslim and Western societies are analyzed.  Yuriy Pochta, in his work, “Clash of Civilizations or Restorying Mankind,” in Chapter 6, reexamines Western analysis and ideas of Islamic society.  By utilizing deconstructionist and reconstructionist theories, Pochta debunks myths and argues for true perceptions.

            Tolerance is the pivotal issue for Basia Nikiforova in “The Tendency of Tolerance in Islamic-Christian Relations,” Chapter 7.  Nikiforova defines tolerance and explores its limits, its societal expression and its inherence in Islam.

            For Plamen Makariev in “Framework for Intercultural Understanding:  Islam as a Challenge,” Chapter 8, the point of departure is the importance of communication between cultures and the utility of frameworks for intercultural understanding.  His philosophical study centers on the analysis of Islamic scholarly treatment of the status of women in Muslim society and its perception by the world.

            In Chapter 9 entitled “Islamic and Christian Cultures:  Reopening the Lost Dialogue,” Nur Kirabaev unveils Islamic civilization as an integral part of Mediterranean culture and civilization.  Kirabaev explores Islamic cultural, scientific and philosophical traditions as well as Islamic humanism.

            Part 3 of the volume focuses on the combination of social and political factors that impact Islamic and Christian cultural identity and ideas.  In this respect, this section begins with Chapter 10 by Jurate Morkuniene, who in “Social Identity as a Basis for Dialogue in Society” presents a comprehensive study of the current problems, challenges and threats to the personal and collective social identity in Lithuania.  Set in an historical context, the development of Lithuanian society over the past fifty years points to the need for dialogue in order to provide equal sociopolitical opportunities for all Lithuanian citizens.

            Mariangela Veikou in “Ethnic Identity of Greek-Albanian Immigrants,” Chapter 11, elaborates on ethnographic case studies of Albanian immigrant families of Greek origin who relocated to Athens, Greece, chronicling their difficulties and successes in making the transition.  The impact of locality is identified as a key factor by which the ethnic identity of Greeks from Albania was formed and practiced.

            Chapter 12, “Religious Values, Social Conflict and Economic Development:  Toward Civility, Peace and Democracy,” by S.K. Kuthiala is an in-depth, comparative survey, treating the chief topics of religious history and traditions as well as the social, economic and political development of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

            In Chapter 13, “Human Rights and Islam,” J. Stefan Lupp assesses the civil and political rights inherent in Islam.  Stefan addresses the issue that international human rights instruments are primarily based on liberalism and democracy which are of Western origin and, therefore, may be incompatible with Islam.  He explores the cultural and economic bases of these instruments and asserts that ideas of liberalism and democracy are currently taking root in the Islamic world.

            The volume ends with Chapter 14, “True and False Pluralism in Relation to the West and Islam,” by Richard K. Khuri who defines pluralism, differentiating between true and false pluralism, as expressed in the Western and Islamic worlds.  The relationship of pluralism to morality -- inter and outer morality -- as well as to monolithism and to cultural diversity is analyzed in terms of its transcendent foundation.

            Appreciation is extended to all who participated in this seminar and to George F. McLean who organized and directed it.